"IFCE 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


AN  EXPERIMENTAL  INVESTIGATION 

OF  THE 

EFFECTS  OF  MODERATE  DOSES  OF  ETHYL  ALCOHOL  ON  A 

RELATED  GROUP  OF  NEURO-MUSCULAR 

PROCESSES  IN  MAN 


BY 


RAYMOND, DODGE  AND  FRANCIS  G.  BENEDICT 


WITH  A  CHAPTER  ON  FREE  ASSOCIATION  IN  COLLABORATION  WITH 
F.  LYMAN  WELLS 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

PUBLISHED  BY  THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON 
1915 


CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON 
PUBLICATION  No.  232 


PRESS  Or  GIBSON  BROTHERS,  INC. 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


CONTENTS         I9|S" 


PAGE. 

CHAPTER  I. — PLAN  OP  THE  INVESTIGATION £-32 

Principles  of  selection  of  the  experimental  processes 13 

General  methodological  considerations 18 

Normal  or  basal  experiments 20 

Control  mixtures 22 

Subjects 24 

Statistical  expression  of  the  measurements 27 

Dosage 29 

General  arrangement  of  the  apparatus 30 

CHAPTER  II. — EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  SIMPLEST  NEURAL  ARCS 33-74 

Available  human  reflexes 34 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  patellar  reflex 35 

Technique 36 

Stimulus 37 

Recording  device 40 

Experimental  procedure 41 

Results 44 

Variability  of  the  patellar  reflex 44 

Normal  variations  in  the  case  of  Subject  II 46 

Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  patellar  reflex 54 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  protective  lid-reflex 56 

Technique 56 

Stimulus 57 

Eyelash 58 

Photographic  recording  camera 58 

Experimental  procedure 60 

Records 61 

Results 62 

Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  protective  lid-reflex 71 

CHAPTER  III. — EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  COMPLEX  NEURAL  ARCS 75-108 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  reaction  of  the  eye  to  perip'  eral  visual  stimuli 76 

Methods  for  recording  the  eye-reactions 77 

Theory  of  recording  the  movements  of  the  eye  by  photographing  the  move- 
ment of  reflection  from  the  cornea 78 

Reaction-time  of  the  eye 78 

Apparatus 79 

Recording  camera 79 

Head-rest 81 

Recording  light 81 

Exposure  apparatus  and  stimulus 81 

Time  records 82 

Experimental  procedure 82 

Results 83 

Summary  of  eye-reaction  data 89 

Variability  of  the  measurements 89 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  eye-reaction 90 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  reaction-time  hi  reading  isolated  words 90 

Exposure  apparatus 91 

Voice-reaction  key 97 

Experimental  procedure 99 

Records 101 

Results 101 

Summary  of  the  word-reactions 106 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  word-reaction . . .  108 


PHYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS  OF   ALCOHOL. 


CHARM  IV.—  EFFECT  or  ALCOHOL  OK  FRKK  ASSOCIATIONS. 
Method*  and  apparatus  ...... 

Apparatus  for  the  psycho-gulvamc  reflex. 
Apparatus  for  recording  the  association  time 
Stimulus  words  ................................ 


Amociation-reartuin  tune 
Associative  categories . 


114 


^ 117 

•Kr.-<|in-ii.-v"  of  tin-  n>|«.n.-r  \\onl> 

Correlations  between  the  various  measurements 

Special  episode*...  > -•' 
CHAPTER  V.— EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PROCESS  OF  MEMORIZING                  126-133 
Apparatus  and  technique 

Experimental  procedure 

Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  memory 
CHAPTER  VI.— EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  SENSORY  THRESHOLD  FOR  FARADIC 

STIMULATION  (MARTIN  MEASUREMENTS).  134-145 

Apparatus  and  technique 

Results 139 

CHAPTER  VII. — EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  MOTOR  COORDINATIONS.  . .  146-185 

General  motor  processes 

Motor  coordinations 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  velocity  of  eye-movements  of  the  first  type.  .  150 

Technique  for  measuring  the  velocity  of  eye-movements 151 

Results 

Summary  of  eye-movement  data 164 

Kffect  of  alcohol  on  the  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  finger 167 

Technique 168 

Apparatus .' 169 

Position  of  the  subject 170 

Experimental  procedure 170 

Results 171 

Summary  of  finger-movement  data 182 

CHAPTER  VIII. — EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PULSE-RATE  DURING  MENTAL  AND 

PHYSICAL  WORK  EXPERIMENTS 186-241 

Techniques  for  recording  the  pulse  during  psychological  experiments 189 

Telephone  pulse-recorder 189 

Construction  and  operation  of  an  electrical  sphygmograph  for  recording 

pulse-rate  at  a  distance 189 

Electro-cardiograms  from  body  leads  through  condensers 193 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  pulse-rate  during  association  experiments 194 

Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  pulse-rate  during  word-reaction  and  finger-movement 

experiments  and  also  during  moderate  muscular  activity  and  rest  211 

Cause  of  the  relative  acceleration  of  the  pulse  after  alcohol 233 

CHAPTER  LX. — SUMMARIES  AND  CORRELATIONS 242-265 

Differential  incidence  of  the  effects  of  alcohol 242 

Evidence  for  alcoholic  stimulation 250 

IB  alcoholic  depression  a  conservative  process? 253 

Temporal  incidence  of  the  effect  after  the  ingestion  of  alcohol 256 

Effect  of  repetition  on  the  various  measurements 259 

Correlation  of  the  various  measurements  with  the  average ? 262 

APPENDIX  I. — Tentative  plan  of  investigation  on  physiological  and  psychological 

effects  of  alcohol  on  man 266-275 

APPENDIX  II.— Family  and  personal  histories  of  the  subjects 276-281 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE. 

Frontispiece.     General   view   of   the   psychological   laboratory   of   the   Nutrition 

Laboratory. 

FIG.    1.  General  plan  of  psychological  laboratory  and  apparatus 31 

2.  Main  apparatus  table  in  psychological  laboratory  (first  view) 32 

3.  Main  apparatus  table  in  psychological  laboratory  (second  view) 32 

4.  Apparatus  for  stimulating  the  patellar  reflex 38 

5.  A  typical  record  of  the  patellar  reflex 43 

6.  The  noise-stimulus  apparatus  for  the  lid-reflex  in  position  before  the  photo- 

graphic recording  camera 59 

7.  Time-recording  interruptor  at  rest 60 

8.  Interruptor  in  action 60 

9.  Protective  lid-reflex  record 60 

10.  Falling-plate  recording-camera 80 

11.  Falling-plate  recording-camera  (inner  construction) 80 

12.  Eye-reaction  records 83 

13.  Diagram  of  pendulum-stop  exposure  apparatus 94 

14.  Diagram  of  apparatus  for  Faradic  threshold,  word-reaction,  lid-reflex,  and 

eye-movement 95 

15.  Record  showing  latency  of  the  pendulum-stop  exposure  apparatus 96 

16.  Voice-reaction  key 99 

17  to  20.  Records  of  the  latency  of  the  voice  key 100 

21.  Photograph  of  a  subject  in  position  for  the  association  experiments 101 

22.  Typical  record  of  a  word-reaction  experiment 101 

23.  Curves  of  the  association-reaction  time 115 

24.  Curves  of  the  frequency  of  the  association  categories 118 

25.  Curves  of  the  usualness  of  the  association 122 

26.  Diagram  of  the  connections  for  memory  experiment 129 

27.  Typical  eye-movement  record 154 

28.  Typical  records  of  the  finger-oscillations  and  pulse  of  two  subjects 171 

29.  Reproduction  of  a  temporal-pulse  record  as  made  by  the  Dodge  telephone- 

recorder  in  series  with  the  string  galvanometer 171 

30.  Part  of  an  association  experiment  record 195 

31.  Association  pulse  of  Subject  VII 201 

32.  Variations  of  the  normal  subjects  from  the  average  of  the  group  for  various 

measurements 264 

5 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL 


AN  EXPERIMENTAL  INVESTIGATION 

OF  THE 

EFFECTS  OF  MODERATE  DOSES  OF  ETHYL  ALCOHOL  ON  A 

RELATED  GROUP  OF  NEURO-MUSCULAR 

PROCESSES  IN  MAN 


BY 

RAYMOND  DODGE  AND  FRANCIS  G.  BENEDICT 

With  a  chapter  on  Free  Association,  in  collaboration  with  F.  Lyman  Wells 


CHAPTER  I. 
PLAN  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION 

Probably  no  subject  in  physiological  chemistry  has  received  so  much 
desultory  experimental  attention  as  has  that  of  the  effects  of  ethyl 
alcohol  on  organic  processes.  We  have  numerous  systematic  and 
exhaustive  contributory  studies  on  the  physiology  of  the  proteins,  of  the 
carbohydrates,  and  of  the  fats;  but  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  several 
million  people  regularly  obtain  a  somewhat  larger  proportion  of  their 
total  energy  requirement  from  alcohol  than  they  do  from  protein,  there 
has  been  no  adequate,  systematic  investigation  of  the  metabolism  of 
alcohol  and  its  physiological  action.  This  is  a  misfortune  to  science. 
On  these  grounds  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  believed  it  important  to 
classify  the  lines  of  research,  and  to  prepare  a  tentative  plan  for  an 
extended  systematic  investigation  into  the  physiological  action  of  ethyl 
alcohol  in  man. 

While  the  central  problems  of  the  plan  are  questions  of  general 
physiology  and  total  metabolism,  it  seemed  desirable  that  there  should 
be  a  correlated  investigation  of  the  psychological  effects  of  alcohol. 
Accordingly,  as  the  plan  indicates,  a  definite  program  was  arranged 
for  the  study  of  the  specific  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  various  neural 
processes.  This  plan,1  which  was  privately  printed  and  issued  under 
date  of  January  1,  1913,  is  reprinted  in  full,  with  minor  typographical 
changes,  as  Appendix  I  of  this  monograph. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  distribution  of  this  plan  among  scientists  in 
Europe  and  in  America,  we  received  a  large  number  of  comments  and 
suggestions  which  showed  clearly  that  the  program  was  given  serious 
consideration.  Many  scientists  granted  personal  interviews  and  freely 
discussed  the  problems.  These  are  Drs.  Paul  He*ger,  Slosse,  and  Van 
Laer,  of  Brussels;  Alquier  and  Bertrand,  of  Paris;  Kossel,  of  Heidel- 
berg; Cohnheim,  of  Hamburg;  Jaquet  and  Staehelin,  of  Basel;  Fano, 
of  Florence;  Luciani,  of  Rome;  Tangl  and  Verzar,  of  Budapest;  Durig, 
Kassowitz,  and  Hans  Horst  Meyer,  of  Vienna;  Franck,  Gruber,  F. 
Miiller,  and  Neubauer,  of  Munich;  His,  Rubner,  and  Zuntz,  of  Berlin; 
Schaternikoff,  of  Moscow;  Albitsky,  Kartaschefsky,  Likhatscheff,  and 
Pawlow,  of  Petrograd;  Tigerstedt  and  Von  Wendt,  of  Helsingfors; 
Arrhenius,  Johansson,  and  Santesson,  of  Stockholm;  Hasselbalch, 

'Tentative  Plan  for  a  Proposed  Investigation  into  the  Physiological  Action  of  Ethyl  Alcohol 
in  Man.  Boston,  1913.  (Reprinted  as  Appendix  I.) 


10  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

Henriques,  and  Krogh,  of  Copenhagen;  Hamburger,  of  Groningen; 
Pekelharing  and  Zwaardemacher,  of  Utrecht;  Pembrey,  of  London; 
Schaefer,  of  Edinburgh;  and  Martin,  of  Boston. 

Many  of  these  gentlemen  supplemented  their  personal  interviews 
by  carefully  written  statements  with  regard  to  the  program,  and 
friendly,  helpful  letters  were  also  received  from  the  following:  Drs. 
Hemmeter,  Baltimore;  Metzner,  Basel;  Bickel,  Friedenthal,  and  Grot- 
jahn,  Berlin;  Kiilpe,  Bonn;  Cannon,  Cabot,  Councilman,  W.  F.  Dear- 
born, Edsall,  Hunt,  Joslin,  and  Rosenau,  Boston;  Cleghorn,  Brantford, 
Canada;  Aron  and  Rosenfeld,  Breslau;  Hari,  Budapest;  Langfeld, 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts;  Rivers,  Cambridge,  England;  MacNider, 
Chapel  Hill,  North  Carolina;  Hough,  Charlottesville,  Virginia; 
Carlson,  Freeman,  and  Judd,  Chicago;  MacLeod  and  Sollmann, 
Cleveland,  Ohio;  Sewall,  Denver;  Kirkpatrick,  Fitchburg;  Mora- 
witz,  Freiburg;  Cattell,  Garrison-on-Hudson,  New  York;  Miiller, 
Gottingen;  Abderhalden  and  Schmidt,  Halle;  Bingham,  Hanover,  New 
Hampshire;  Cushny  and  Horsley,  London;  Davenport,  Long  Island, 
New  York;  Cady,  Middletown,  Connecticut;  Rosemann  and  Krum- 
macher,  Minister;  Galeotti,  Naples;  Berthelot,  Neuchatel;  Henderson 
and  Mendel,  New  Haven,  Connecticut;  Coleman,  Dana,  and  Thorn- 
dike,  New  York;  Douglas,  Oxford;  Hare  and  Keen,  Philadelphia; 
Holitscher,  Pirkenhammer  bei  Karlsbad;  Brooks,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsyl- 
vania; Pick,  Prague;  Shaffer,  St.  Louis,  Missouri;  Crawford,  Palo 
Alto,  California;  Geill,  Viborg;  Goddard,  Vineland,  New  Jersey;  Franz, 
I^angworthy,  and  Salant,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Helpful  criticism  of  the  psychological  program  was  given  on  the 
occasion  of  the  partial  presentation  of  our  data  at  the  1914  meeting 
of  Experimental  Psychologists  at  Columbia  University  and  at  the  Phil- 
adelphia meeting  of  the  American  Psychological  Association,  1915. 

It  was  generally  felt  that  the  tentative  plan  filled  a  real  need.  The 
principle  of  commencing  a  new  alcohol  research  upon  definitely  organ- 
ized lines  was  fully  approved  by  practically  all  of  the  scientists  with 
whom  we  conferred.  While  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  is  committed  to 
a  continuation  of  the  investigation,  and  while  definite  arrangements 
have  been  formulated  to  make  the  alcohol  investigation,  either  on  the 
physiological  side  or  on  the  psychological  side,  a  substantial  part  of 
each  year's  work,  it  is  inconceivable  that  any  one  or  a  dozen  laboratories 
can  adequately  complete  this  program  in  a  decade.  Consequently,  as 
the  published  program  clearly  stated,  it  was  presented  with  the  hope 
that  it  would  suggest  profitable  lines  of  articulated  research  in  a  con- 
siderable number  of  laboratories  and  institutions  whose  facilities  and 
interests  particularly  fit  them  for  undertaking  the  various  problems. 

In  the  tentative  plan  no  suggestions  were  made  for  digesting  the 
literature  of  alcohol.  The  accumulation  of  scientific  research  upon  the 
physiology  and  psychology  of  alcohol  has  been  in  more  or  less  active 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  11 

progress  for  the  last  half  century.  An  enormous  number  of  titles  is 
included  in  the  available  bibliographies,  notably  those  of  Abderhalden1 
and  Viazemsky.2  Many  of  these  researches  are  at  present  absolutely 
inaccessible  to  us.  To  cover  all  adequately  would  be  the  labor  of 
years.  To  delay  experimentation  until  a  complete  digest  had  been 
made  would  have  meant  to  postpone  experimental  work  indefinitely. 
We  have  attempted  to  digest  the  main  experimental  investigations  per- 
taining to  the  special  phases  of  the  alcohol  problem  of  which  we  treat 
in  this  book ;  but  we  have  written  with  a  painful  sense  of  many  omis- 
sions that  should  appear  in  any  attempt  to  record  faithfully  each 
experimenter's  share  in  the  progress  of  knowledge  concerning  the 
psychology  of  alcohol.  Our  lists  of  works  cited  disclaim  any  pretense 
of  being  a  complete  collection  of  the  relevant  literature.  For  such, 
reference  must  be  made  to  the  excellent  bibliographies  just  cited. 

The  investigation  of  certain  purely  physiological  phases  of  the  alcohol 
problem  was  begun  concurrently  with  the  investigation  in  the  psycho- 
logical laboratory.  But  the  larger  proportion  of  the  efforts  of  the 
Nutrition  Laboratory  in  the  alcohol  investigation  during  the  academic 
year  of  1913-14  were  concentrated  upon  the  psychological  program. 
This  arrangement  seemed  desirable,  since  we  were  forced  to  take 
advantage  of  the  relatively  short  time  that  Dodge  could  be  free  from 
his  academic  work.  This  first  publication  under  the  general  plan  for 
the  systematic  investigation  of  alcohol  consequently  has  to  deal  with 
the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  neuro-muscular  tissue,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  mental  operations  and  conduct. 

Neither  the  technical  nor  the  practical  difficulties  of  this  phase  of  the 
problem  were  underestimated.  As  we  pointed  out  in  the  psychological 
program,  unfortunately  only  the  simpler  and  more  elementary  neuro- 
muscular  processes  can  be  studied  directly  by  present  laboratory 
techniques.  Of  the  important  higher  mental  and  moral  processes 
there  is  at  present  scant  probability  for  securing  experimental  data  of 
scientific  reliability,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  measuring  them  experi- 
mentally in  any  direct  way.  This  technical  defect  is  a  serious  limita- 
tion to  all  experimental  investigations  of  the  psychological  effects  of 
the  ingestion  of  alcohol,  since  it  is  in  precisely  these  directions  that  our 
general  and  scientific  experience  indicates  that  the  effects  of  alcohol 
are  probably  the  most  serious.3  It  is  in  these  directions  also  that 
animal  experimentation  most  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  data  from 
human  subjects.  The  present  investigation  makes  no  pretense  to  have 

Abderhalden,  Bibliographic  der  gesamten  wissenschaftlichen  Literatur  iiber  den  Alkohol 
und  den  Alkoholismus,  Berlin  and  Vienna,  1904. 

"Viazemsky,  A  bibliography  on  the  question  of  alcoholism,  Moscow,  1909,  Part  I.  (Russian.) 
The  Russian  original,  together  with  an  English  translation  made  by  H.  A.  Norman  and  H.  B. 
Dine,  are  both  on  file  at  the  Nutrition  Laboratory. 

3Hodge,  Pop.  Sci.  Monthly,  1896-97,  50,  pp.  594  and  796;  Hunt,  Hyg.  Lab.,  Public  Health  and 
Marine-Hospital  Service  Bull.  No.  33,  1907;  Laitinen,  Zeitschr.  f.  Hyg.  u.  Infectionskrankheiten, 
1907,  58,  p.  139. 


12  PSYCHOLOGICAL    EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

solved  this  fundamental  technical  difficulty.  We  believe,  however, 
that  in  our  selection  of  definitely  related  groups  of  measurable  phe- 
nomena we  have  not  only  secured  accurate  data  concerning  the  action 
of  alcohol  on  definite  neuro-muscular  processes,  but  that  we  have 
positively  contributed  to  the  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  the  more 
complex  psycho-physiological  effects. 

In  addition  to  the  theoretical  and  technical  considerations  which  we 
outlined  in  the  psychological  program,  a  number  of  accidental  condi- 
tions combined  to  determine  the  particular  series  of  measurements 
that  could  be  undertaken  in  the  single  academic  year  which  Dodge 
could  devote  to  the  alcohol  program.  These  were  chiefly  matters  of 
expediency.  They  concerned  the  economical  use  of  the  time,  energy, 
and  laboratory  equipment  which  were  available.  Two  different  reac- 
tions to  these  practical  limitations  suggested  themselves.  The  first 
was  to  cover  as  much  of  the  program  as  practicable  with  one  or  two 
subjects.  One  could  thus  eliminate  by  trial  such  technique  as  seemed 
likely  to  yield  least  consistent  data  and  elaborate  those  that  seemed 
more  promising.  The  second  possibility  was  to  limit  the  year's  work 
to  relatively  few  lines  of  research,  investigating  the  neuro-muscular 
system  at  various  levels  by  techniques  for  which  we  were  peculiarly  well 
equipped,  and  endeavoring  to  make  the  data  from  those  particular 
lines  of  investigation  as  exhaustive  and  definitive  as  possible.  After 
consideration,  the  second  reaction  was  adopted  as  on  the  whole  the 
more  expedient.  Under  these  circumstances  it  was  inevitable  that  the 
year's  work  should  raise  many  questions  to  which  there  was  no  oppor- 
tunity for  obtaining  experimental  answers.  This  explains  also  why  a 
considerable  part  of  our  original  psychological  program  is  apparently 
neglected,  and  why  we  were  unable  to  put  into  practice  the  many  valu- 
able suggestions  which  were  kindly  sent  in  reply  to  our  request  for 
suggestions  and  criticisms  on  the  original  program.  The  Nutrition 
Laboratory  is  continuing  this  part  of  its  plan  under  the  direction  of 
Professor  W.  R.  Miles.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  acknowledge  our  grateful 
obligation  to  Professor  Miles  for  his  kindness  in  supplying  several  of 
the  photographs  used  in  this  report  and  for  his  counsel  in  many  ways. 
The  preparation  of  the  report  has  had  the  editorial  supervision  of 
Miss  A.  N.  Darling,  whose  careful  scrutiny  of  the  tabular  presentation 
of  the  material  has  been  a  valued  service. 

Before  beginning  experimentation  on  the  effects  of  alcohol  upon  the 
neuro-muscular  processes,  the  special  laboratory  devoted  to  this  pur- 
pose had  been  partially  equipped  for  nearly  a  year  and  the  main  appa- 
ratus had  been  tested  in  a  systematic  research  with  several  subjects  on 
the  neuro-muscular  effects  accompanying  the  metabolic  disturbances 
which  were  provoked  by  an  acidosis  resulting  from  the  use  of  a  carbo- 
hydrate-free diet.  Thus  we  were  able  to  secure  valuable  experience 
prior  to  the  undertaking  of  this  more  elaborate  research. 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  13 

The  following  neuro-muscular  processes  were  investigated  in  relation 
to  the  effects  of  alcohol: 

(1)  Simple  reflexes: 

(a)  Lumbar  arc.  The  patellar  reflex,  its  latency  and  extent 
of  contraction  as  measured  by  quadriceps  thickening, 
with  indication  of  its  refractory  period. 

(6)  Cephalic  arc.  The  protective  lid-reflex  to  noise  stimulus; 
its  latency,  extent  of  movement,  and  refractory  period. 

(2)  Complicated  reactions — cortical  arcs: 

(a)  Eye-reactions    to    suddenly    appearing    peripheral    visual 

stimuli. 

(b)  Adequate  speech-reactions  to  a  series  of  24  visual  words. 

(3)  Free-association  reactions.     Latency,  character  of  the  response, 

and  concurrent  pulse-changes. 

(4)  Memory.     Learning  a  normal  series  of  12  significant  but  uncon- 

nected words. 

(5)  Sensory  threshold  to  Faradic  stimulation.     Method  of  Martin.1 

(6)  Motor  coordination: 

(a)  Speed  of  the  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  middle  finger. 

(6)  Speed  and  accuracy  of  eye-movements  in  looking  from  one 

point  of  fixation  to  another  in  the  same  horizontal 

plane  through  an  arc  of  40°. 

(7)  In  addition  to  the  neuro-muscular  processes  of  the  cerebro-spinal 

system,  the  autonomic  system  was  investigated  in  the 
peculiarly  significant  pulse-rate.  Throughout  the 
experiments  pulse  was  recorded  either  continuously  or 
at  such  intervals  as  the  changing  conditions  seemed 
to  warrant. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  SELECTION  OF  THE  EXPERIMENTAL  PROCESSES. 

In  several  respects  this  group  of  experimental  measurements  repre- 
sents a  conscious  departure  from  traditional  methods  for  the  investi- 
gation of  the  effects  of  foods  or  drugs  on  man.  The  fundamental 
principle  of  their  selection  was  the  attempt  to  secure  a  group  of  syste- 
matically coordinated  measurements.  Instead  of  studying  the  effect 
of  alcohol  on  special,  isolated,  more  or  less  arbitrarily  chosen  processes, 
we  have  tried  to  bring  together  systematically  coordinated  data  cover- 
ing the  most  fundamental  aspects  of  neuro-muscular  action. 

It  may  be  objected  that  in  the  end  several  investigations  of  different 
processes,  even  though  the  latter  are  somewhat  arbitrarily  chosen, 
would  be  as  useful  as  a  single  investigation  of  coordinated  processes. 
It  would  seem  that  if  unrelated  investigations  are  sufficiently  numerous 
and  sufficiently  varied,  they  must  finally  furnish  data  for  the  most 
extensive  correlations.  This  would  undoubtedly  be  true  provided  the 
experimental  material  were  obtained  by  comparable  techniques  on  the 
same  subjects.  Such  conditions,  however,  could  scarcely  be  realized, 
except  in  carefully  organized  series  like  the  present.  Even  under  the 

lMartin,  Measurement  of  Induction  Shocks,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  1912. 


14  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

most  favorable  experimental  conditions  the  individual  subject  is  often 
measurably  different  in  his  reactions  at  one  session  from  what  he  was 
at  another.  The  statistical  problem  of  correlating  the  various  meas- 
urements would  be  enormously  more  difficult  if,  in  addition  to  the 
differences  of  the  individual  at  different  times,  one  must  take  into 
account  the  still  larger  differences  between  the  several  individuals. 

Whatever  the  faults  of  the  present  application  of  our  fundamental 
principle,  and  they  are  admittedly  many,  we  feel  confident  that  the 
attempt  to  secure  accurate  measurements  of  the  most  complete  possible 
group  of  systematically  related  phenomena  is  sound  procedure. 
Indeed,  on  any  of  the  current  theories  of  science  it  appears  to  be  the  only 
sound  basis  for  this  sort  of  experimentation  on  man.  Only  in  the 
simplest  of  inorganic  processes  can  the  measurement  of  a  single  function 
be  satisfactory.  The  more  complex  the  system  under  investigation 
the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  possible  organic  variants,  and  the 
larger  should  be  the  group  of  coordinated  measurements.  In  a  group 
of  tissues  as  complex  as  the  neuro-muscular  tissues  in  man  our  best 
arrangements  for  simultaneous  measurements  of  coordinated  processes 
must  fall  far  short  of  the  ideal. 

The  arrangement  of  the  experimental  processes  in  convenient  series 
was  entirely  a  matter  of  laboratory  economy  and  expediency.  The 
main  principles  of  arrangement  were  to  distribute  the  use  of  our  instru- 
ments so  as  to  prevent  waste  of  time  and  material,  to  avoid  disturbing 
readjustments  of  the  subject,  and  to  condense  the  most  possible  into 
the  half-hour  periods  into  which  the  sessions  were  divided.  Recom- 
binations of  the  series  were  consequently  not  specially  avoided  where 
they  would  increase  laboratory  efficiency.  There  were  originally  five 
series  of  experiments  which  were  subsequently  reduced  to  three,  partly 
by  the  omission  of  some  of  the  members  and  partly  by  consolidation. 
Experiments  which  were  not  carried  into  latter  series  are  marked  "not 
continued."  The  various  original  series  are  as  follows: 

SERIES  I. 

(1)  Electro-cardiogram,  lead  I,  of  Einthoven,  taken  at  the  first  session 
only  (not  continued).  (2)  Reciprocal  innervation  of  the  middle  finger  of  the 
right  hand  for  8  seconds  repeated  after  60  seconds.  (3)  Pulse-records  (tem- 
poral artery,  telephone  recorder)  at  rest  and  during  finger-movements.  (4) 
Patellar  reflex;  stimulated  by  pendulum  hammers  of  various  weights  and 
recorded  from  the  quadriceps  thickening.  (5)  Sensory  threshold  to  Faradic 
stimulation,  Martin1  measurement. 

SERIES  II. 

(1)  Eye-reactions.  (2)  Eye-movements  through  an  angle  of  40°.  (3)  Pro- 
tective lid-reaction  to  noise  stimulus.  (4)  Memory.  (5)  Tapping  test,  full 
arm  and  wrist  (not  continued).  (6)  Time  estimates,  seconds  (not  continued). 

•Martin,  Measurement  of  Induction  Shocks.  New  York,  N.  Y.,  1912. 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  15 

SERIES  III. 

(1)  Adequate  speech-reaction  to  visual  words.  (2)  Memory,  repetitions 
and  new  material.  (3)  Protective  lid-reflex  to  noise  stimulus  with  con- 
trolled attention.  (4)  Involuntary  eye-movements  in  reading  a  moving  text 
with  supposed  constant  fixation  (not  continued).  (5)  Pulse-records,  quiet, 
immediately  after  standing  and  after  60  seconds  of  standing,  after  two  double 
genuflections,  and  after  60  seconds  quiet.  (6)  Threshold  for  muscle  contrac- 
tion in  response  to  Faradic  stimulation  (not  continued). 

SERIES  IV. 

(1)  Adequate  speech-reactions  to  complete  series  of  24  words  with  con- 
current pulse-records.  (2)  Finger,  hand,  and  arm  tremors,  photographic 
registration  (not  continued).  (3)  Rapid  reading,  with  photographic  registra- 
tion of  eye-movements:  (a)  natural,  as  rapid  as  possible;  (6)  letter  by  letter 
(not  continued).  (4)  Convergence  and  divergence  eye-movements  (not  con- 
tinued). (5)  Pulse-records  as  in  Series  III. 

SERIES  V. 

(1)  Association  experiments  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  F.  L.  Wells,  of 
McLean  Hospital  staff,  with  continuous  graphic  records  of  reaction  time, 
pulse,  and  respiration,  and  occasional  observation  of  the  "psycho-galvanic 
reflex"  by  the  aid  of  the  string  galvanometer.  (2)  Sensory  threshold  to  Fara- 
dic stimulation. 

In  the  12-hour  experiments,  Series  I  to  IV  were  condensed  to  a 
single  series,  which  was  repeated  each  hour:  (1)  patellar  reflex;  (2) 
sensory  threshold  to  Faradic  stimulation;  (3)  protective  lid-reflex; 

(4)  eye-reaction;   (5)  eye-movement;   (6)  speech-reaction  with  pulse; 
(7)  finger-movement  with  pulse. 

Series  V  was  never  changed  nor  united  with  any  other.  It  was  not 
given  to  the  psychopathic  subjects.  (See  p.  25.) 

For  most  of  the  main  group  of  subjects,  and  for  all  the  psychopathic 
and  occasional  subjects,  Series  I  to  IV  were  condensed  to  two  series,  as 
follows : 

SERIES  I  A. 

(1)  Patellar  reflex;  (2)  speech-reactions  with  pulse;  (3)  finger-movements 
with  pulse;  (4)  threshold  to  Faradic  stimulation. 

SERIES  II  A. 

(1)  Eye-reaction;  (2)  eye-movement;  (3)  protective  lid-reflex;  (4)  memory; 

(5)  pulse  at  rest,  after  rising,  and  after  two  double  genuflections. 

In  the  succeeding  detailed  discussion  of  the  various  techniques  and 
their  results  the  matter  will  be  arranged  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
experiment  rather  than  according  to  the  series. 

If  we  call  the  first  principle  which  determined  our  selection  of  meas- 
urable phenomena  the  principle  of  systematic  coordination,  a  second 
conscious  departure  from  traditional  procedure  may  be  called  the 
principle  of  relative  simplicity.  We  have  made  the  attempt  to  inves- 


16  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

tigate  elementary  neuro-muscular  processes  in  their  simplest  available 
form,  and  of  the  more  complex  processes  to  choose  those  involving  as  few 
unknown  factors  as  possible.  In  particular  we  have  tried  to  measure 
processes  that  were  as  insusceptible  as  possible  to  direct  and  arbitrary 
conscious  modification,  and  as  free  as  possible  from  uncontrollable 
influences  of  bias,  effort,  and  attention.  We  thus  tried  to  avoid  the 
occasion  for  most  of  the  adverse  criticism  that  has  been  directed  against 
earlier  researches  on  the  psychological  effects  of  alcohol.  This  second 
principle  led  us  to  lay  particular  emphasis  on  the  simplest  reflex  arcs 
as  a  precondition  for  interpreting  the  complicated  reactions.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  accuracy  and  simplicity  of  the  photographic  technique,  the 
freedom  of  the  processes  from  arbitrary  modification  led  us  to  measure 
the  velocity  of  the  eye-movements  in  preference  to  the  movement  of 
members  which  are  more  subject  to  voluntary  control.  The  same 
principle  of  simplicity  led  us  to  measure  the  sensory  threshold  for 
Faradic  stimulation  in  preference  to  those  sense  thresholds  which  are 
complicated  by  more  or  less  elaborate  adaptive  mechanisms,  as  in 
vision;  or  by  the  irregular  interplay  of  related  sense  data,  as  in  the 
pressure  threshold.  On  the  negative  side,  this  principle  led  us  to  ex- 
clude a  considerable  number  of  familiar  techniques,  the  most  conspicu- 
ous example  of  which  is  the  ergographic  experiment.  In  addition  to  the 
fact  that  any  ergographic  data  which  we  might  collect  would  add  rela- 
tively little  to  the  mass  of  more  or  less  conflicting  data  already  at  hand, 
and  quite  apart  from  the  purely  mechanical  difficulties  in  the  operation 
of  the  ergograph  and  in  the  interpretation  of  the  resulting  data,  we  were 
disinclined  to  use  that  instrument  because  of  the  fundamental  difficulty 
of  disentangling  the  numerous  physiological  and  psychological  factors 
that  unite  to  produce  any  specific  ergographic  accomplishment.1  On 
similar  grounds,  any  measurements  involving  long-sustained  attention 
or  effort,  or  indifference  to  increasing  discomfort,  without  opportunity 
for  adequate,  objective  control,  seemed  undesirable.  But  obviously, 
even  at  best,  in  view  of  recent  analyses  of  neuro-muscular  processes, 
such  as  those  of  Sherrington,2  Verworn,3  and  Isserlin,4  simplicity  can 
be  no  more  than  a  relative  term.  We  must  concede  that  the  action  of 
even  the  simplest  spinal  arcs  is  normally  dependent  on  the  interplay 
of  an  indefinite  number  of  inhibiting  and  reinforcing  conditions  that 
can  never  be  entirely  eliminated.  The  action  of  the  higher  nervous 

•The  attempt  of  Mile.  Joteyko  (Joteyko,  Travaux  du  Laboratoire  de  Physiologic,  Institute 
Solvay.  Brussels,  1904,  6,  p.  361)  to  give  a  mathematical  expression  to  the  interrelationship  of 
central  factors,  the  effects  of  exhaustion,  and  the  intoxication  by  fatigue  products  must  be  regarded 
as  suggesting  a  direction  of  investigation  rather  than  as  establishing  a  technique.  At  the  present 
time,  at  least,  her  original  analysis  can  not  be  said  to  supply  a  reliable  instrument  for  general 
application  to  ergographic  curves.  The  classical  analysis  of  the  fatigue  curve  by  Kraepelin 
shows  how  complex  may  be  the  interplay  of  the  various  factors. 

*6herrington,  Integrative  Action  of  the  Nervous  System,  New  York.  N.  Y.,  1907. 

•Verworn,  Irritability,  New  Haven,  1913;  Verworn,  Erregung  und  Lahmung,  Jena,  1914. 

'iMerlin,  Psychol.  Arbeiten.  1914,  6,  pp.  1  to  196. 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  17 

centers  commonly  follows  enormously  complex  patterns.  Granting  all 
the  difficulties,  we  still  believe  that  the  principle  of  simplicity  is  an  im- 
portant practical  guide  in  the  selection  of  measurable  phenomena,  even 
though  it  must  remain  for  the  present  a  principle  of  relative  simplicity. 

A  third  principle  that  guided  us  in  the  selection  of  our  techniques  is 
the  principle  of  customary  reaction.  Wherever  the  practice  curve  is 
not  intentionally  an  object  of  investigation,  we  believed  that  our  ex- 
periments should  be  so  arranged  that  the  motor  response  of  the  subject 
will  be  a  thoroughly  natural  and  familiar  act.  The  theoretical  advan- 
tage of  customary  reaction  is  that,  in  view  of  the  large  number  of  pre- 
experimental  responses  of  a  similar  character,  the  relatively  few  ex- 
perimental instances  would  not  operate  to  introduce  a  practice  curve  in 
the  results.1  It  was  on  this  principle  that  we  chose  adequate  eye- 
reactions  instead  of  any  arbitrary  opening  or  closing  of  special  reaction 
keys.  The  adaptive  movement  of  the  eyes,  by  which  a  suddenly 
appearing  peripheral  object  is  fixated,  has  been  practiced  since  birth. 
It  does  not  have  to  be  taught  the  subject  for  experimental  purposes. 
It  consequently  seemed  unlikely  to  us  that  any  practice  effects  of  our 
relatively  short  experimental  series  would  materially  affect  the  results. 
The  sequel  will  show  that  our  technique  did  not  entirely  eliminate 
unusual  limitation  hi  the  variety  of  possible  positions  and  consequent 
practice.  But  that  does  not  affect  the  value  of  the  principle.  It  was  on 
similar  grounds  that  we  chose  the  familiar  speech-reactions  to  visual 
word-stimuli  in  place  of  the  more  unfamiliar  controlled  association  tests. 

It  should  be  emphasized  that  neither  the  principles  of  selection  nor 
the  techniques  for  measuring  the  selected  processes  were  elaborated 
solely  for  the  study  of  the  effects  of  the  ingestion  of  alcohol.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Martin's  Faradic  threshold  measurements  and  the 
association  experiments,  for  which  Dr.  F.  L.  Wells  was  responsible, 
both  the  theory  and  the  techniques  of  all  our  measurements  have  been 
elaborated  by  Dodge2  through  a  number  of  years  with  special  reference 
to  their  bearing  on  mental  work  and  mental  fatigue.  Not  only  were 
the  technique  and  apparatus  in  general  thoroughly  tried  out,  but  the 
particular  equipment  of  the  psychological  laboratory  had  been  installed 
and  tested  in  the  previous  acidosis  experiments.  Furthermore,  assis- 
tants had  been  thoroughly  trained  to  this  investigation  before  the  alco- 
hol problem  was  begun. 

^ryan  and  Harter,  Psychol.  Review,  1897,  4,  p.  27;  also  1899,  6,  p.  346;  Book,  The  Psychology 
of  Skill,  1908;  Swift,  Mind  in  the  Making,  New  York,  1908. 
1  Detailed  references  to  the  original  papers  are  given  in  the  bibliography  of  the  various  processes. 


18  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

GENERAL  METHODOLOGICAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  problem  of  studying  the  consequences  of  any  experimental  inter- 
ference with  a  living  organism  is  fundamentally  a  problem  of  scientific 
method,  both  general  and  specific.  Both  the  experimenter  and  his 
critical  reader  should  have  clearly  in  mind  the  available  canons  of 
investigation,  and  the  degree  of  accuracy  that  may  be  legitimately 
expected  in  the  results,  as  well  as  the  specific  lines  of  investigation 
and  the  specific  techniques  that  can  be  relied  on  to  yield  adequate 
quantitative  data.  Since  in  our  case  the  question  at  issue  is  the  nature 
of  the  neuro-muscular  consequences  of  the  ingestion  of  alcohol,  the 
logical  problem  is  strictly  causal.  It  is  our  task  to  isolate  from  the 
complex  phenomena  that  may  follow  the  experimental  ingestion  of 
alcohol  the  uniform  and  necessary  consequences. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  emphasize  at  the  beginning  that  the  basic 
experimental  method  of  difference  in  its  true  form  is  inapplicable  in 
such  experiments  as  these.  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  isolate  a 
single  experimental  circumstance  in  man.  The  living  human  organism 
includes  too  many  complex  variables.  It  is  subject  to  too  many 
rhythmic  and  arrhythmic  changes,  which  make  it,  at  any  moment  of 
time,  different  from  what  it  has  ever  been  before.  After  the  intro- 
duction of  our  experimental  circumstance  into  this  complex  of  ever- 
changing  conditions,  we  could  not  be  sure  that  even  notable  variations 
in  the  measurements  of  selected  processes  were  not  conditioned  in 
whole  or  in  part  by  organic  changes  which  were  quite  unrelated  to 
our  experiment.  Our  excuse  for  appearing  to  insist  on  the  obvious 
is  that  in  past  experiments  on  the  phj^siological  effects  of  drugs  the 
obvious  has  not  always  been  noticed.  The  importance  of  distinguish- 
ing between  the  accidental  and  the  necessary  by  carefully  planned 
series  of  control  experiments  is  a  relatively  recent  product.  It  is  not 
always  realized  even  in  current  studies.  Still  more  frequently  do 
experiments  on  the  effects  of  drugs  on  animals  as  well  as  on  man  fail 
to  provide  for  an  adequate  statistical  elaboration  of  their  results. 
This  is  a  particularly  difficult  matter  in  operative  techniques.  But, 
in  man  at  least,  it  is  never  a  satisfactory  procedure  to  regard  succeed- 
ing changes  in  a  measured  phenomenon  as  the  effect  of  an  experi- 
mental change,  merely  because  one  is  consequent  to  the  other. 

If  all  the  organic  rhythms  and  accidental  changes  were  adequately 
known  we  might  arrive  at  the  quantitative  results  of  our  experiment 
by  a  process  of  subduction.  Unfortunately,  with  our  present  knowl- 
edge this  can  not  be  done  directly.  With  a  few  notable  exceptions, 
such  as  the  work  of  Lombard,1  and  of  Grabfield  and  Martin,2  we  know 
altogether  too  little  about  the  daily  rhythms  of  even  the  simplest  neuro- 
muscular  processes.  We  have  still  scantier  quantitative  data  of  the 

'Lombard,  Journ.  Phytriol.,  1892,  13,  p.  26. 

*Grabfield  and  Martin,  Am.  Journ.  Phyaiol.,  1912-13,  31,  p.  300. 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  19 

accidental  environmental  effects,  such  as  those  produced  by  changes  of 
temperature,  light,  humidity,  etc.  Except  in  a  few  isolated  cases  we 
have  no  knowledge  at  all  of  the  mental  consequences  of  such  complex 
vital  processes  as  are  involved  in  the  secretions  of  the  various  ductless 
glands,  changes  in  blood-pressure  and  pulse-rate,  the  ingestion  of 
different  foods,  and  various  kinds  of  muscular  activity. 

As  far  as  these  various  factors  were  known  to  influence  the  question 
at  issue,  they  were  more  or  less  completely  avoided  by  the  arrangement 
of  our  experimental  program.  For  example,  we  endeavored  to  avoid 
the  interplay  of  possible  weekly,  as  well  as  daily,  rhythms  by  experi- 
menting on  each  subject,  in  so  far  as  possible,  only  once  a  week  on  the 
same  day  of  the  week,  at  the  same  time  of  day,  and  at  the  same  time 
after  eating.  (The  group  of  psychopathic  subjects  made  the  only 
exception  to  this  rule.  They  served  as  subjects  five  consecutive  days.) 
But  the  climatic  changes  were  not  controllable.  Moreover,  from  the 
data  that  we  regularly  collected  at  the  beginning  of  each  experimental 
session,  it  is  clear  that  in  the  comparatively  even  life  of  students 
there  were  more  or  less  conspicuous  differences  in  the  conditions  which 
immediately  preceded  our  experiments.  The  weekly  routine  of  work 
and  relaxation  was  far  from  constant.  Neither  the  amount  nor  the 
kind  of  food  could  be  accurately  predetermined.  Slight  indispositions, 
differences  of  subjective  tiredness  and  sleepiness,  and  probable  differ- 
ences of  real  fatigue  developed  as  the  experimental  sessions  progressed. 
To  have  interrupted  or  deferred  the  experiments  whenever  any  of  these 
differences  appeared  would  have  lost  much  time  and  have  enormously 
increased  the  number  of  experimental  periods.  To  have  demanded 
rigid  controls  and  strict  regulation  of  life  would  have  meant  the  loss  of 
all  our  subjects  of  the  student  class,  and  possible  serious  mental  dis- 
turbances in  the  others.  The  complete  elimination  of  physiological 
variation  would  be  utterly  impossible  in  human  beings. 

For  the  purpose  of  our  experimental  investigation  we  were  conse- 
quently forced  to  regard  all  the  rhythmic  and  arrhythmic  variables 
which  we  could  not  eliminate  as  accidents  which  a  sufficiently  large 
number  of  instances  should  tend  to  distribute,  without  bias  to  the 
question  at  issue.  While  we  must  carefully  protect  the  experiments 
from  every  known  bias,  we  must  realize  the  possibility  that  in  any 
given  instance  the  real  effects  of  alcohol  may  be  completely  masked  by 
the  accidental  variables,  and  on  the  other  hand,  that  on  occasion  the 
real  effects  may  be  more  or  less  grossly  exaggerated.  Within  the 
physiological  limits  which  are  prescribed  by  our  immediate  problem, 
viz.,  the  effects  of  moderate  doses,  we  can  not  expect  any  fundament- 
ally important  neuro-muscular  process  to  entirely  disappear.  Neither 
may  we  properly  expect  the  appearance  of  a  new  specific  reaction  to 
alcohol  within  the  limits  of  our  selected  measurements.  All  that  we 
can  legitimately  expect  to  say  at  the  end  of  our  investigation  is  that 


20  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

some  modifications  of  the  measurable  qualities  of  selected  neuro-mus- 
cular  processes  occur  more  regularly  or  in  greater  or  less  degree  after 
the  ingestion  of  alcohol  than  without  it.  Giving  due  weight  to  our 
measurements  of  the  normal  variations,  we  can  say  that  the  average 
change  in  the  measurable  qualities  of  the  selected  processes  after  the 
ingestion  of  alcohol,  minus  the  average  change  under  otherwise  similar 
conditions,  but  without  the  ingestion  of  alcohol,  will  represent  the 
effects  of  the  dose  of  alcohol  that  was  administered.  Experimental 
results  of  this  sort  have  a  degree  of  probability  which  depends  not  only 
on  the  accuracy  of  the  individual  measurements  and  the  similarity  of 
controllable  circumstances,  but  also  on  the  number  of  experimental 
instances  and  on  the  probability  of  a  really  chance  distribution  of  the 
accidental  variations.  The  sequel  will  show  that  for  no  single  subject 
are  the  data  sufficiently  numerous,  except  in  the  case  of  the  pulse- 
records,  to  give  a  satisfactory  quantitative  statement  of  the  individual 
differences  of  the  effect  of  alcohol.  Our  experimental  answer  to  the 
main  question  at  issue,  viz,  as  to  the  general  direction  and  amount  of 
change  in  the  various  processes  consequent  to  the  experimental  inges- 
tion of  alcohol,  is,  we  believe,  conclusive  and  adequate. 

In  addition  to  the  main  experimental  precautions,  we  systematically 
varied  the  alcohol  dose.  This  was  done  for  the  following  reasons:  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  a  fact  that  different  doses  of  some  drugs  produce 
quite  different  physiological  effects,  amounting  even  to  a  change  of 
sign.  That  this  is  probably  true  of  alcohol  seemed  to  be  indicated  in 
more  than  one  experimental  investigation.  The  existence  and  con- 
ditions of  such  a  change  in  the  effect  of  alcohol,  if  it  really  occurs, 
is  a  peculiarly  important  phase  of  the  alcohol  problem.  In  the  second 
place,  we  felt  that  no  safeguard  against  mistaking  accidental  variation 
for  causal  relationship  is  so  effective  and  no  evidence  is  quite  so  con- 
vincing as  that  of  concomitant  variation  in  the  amount  of  the  alcohol 
dose  and  its  effects.  We  believe  that  the  results  justify  the  increased 
labor,  and  that  in  no  other  way  could  we  have  secured  the  same  insight 
into  the  vagaries  of  the  commonly  observed  effects  of  alcohol. 

NORMAL  OR  BASAL  EXPERIMENTS. 

The  fundamental  requirements  of  method  which  we  have  already 
considered  demand  the  largest  possible  number  of  measurements  of 
the  phenomena  under  investigation,  both  with  and  without  alcohol, 
but  under  otherwise  similar  or  comparable  circumstances.  On  general 
logical  principles,  the  number  of  instances  should  be  approximately 
equal  in  both  cases.  This  was  arranged  for  in  our  routine,  by  the 
regular  introduction  of  normal  days  identical  with  the  alcohol  days 
as  far  as  practicable,  with  the  exception  that  on  normal  days  no  alcohol 
was  administered.  Furthermore,  even  on  alcohol  days  one  normal 
period  was  given  before  the  dose.  Each  experimental  session  may 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  21 

thus  be  regarded  as  beginning  with  a  "  normal  of  the  day,"1  which  was 
followed  either  by  normal  or  by  alcohol  experiments  according  to  a 
predetermined  plan. 

The  non-alcohol  periods  and  days  are  frequently  called  control 
periods  and  control  days  in  the  literature.  The  term  is  misleading. 
It  would  seem  to  imply  that  such  experimental  periods  were  occasional 
and  incidental  to  the  main  course  of  the  experiments.  In  fact,  the 
non-alcohol  experiment  is  as  essential  to  the  logical  theory  as  the 
alcohol  experiment.  Strictly  speaking,  the  non-alcohol  experiments 
are  not  supposed  to  furnish  controls  of  the  validity  of  the  other  experi- 
ments; they  are  supposed  to  furnish  norms  or  base-lines  from  which 
the  alcohol  experiments  may  or  may  not  show  characteristic  differences. 
In  careful  terminology,  then,  our  non-alcohol  experiments  are  not 
controls,  but  basal  or  normal  experiments,  as  Warren1  and  Rivers2 
properly  call  them. 

The  normal  or  basal  experiments  were  necessarily  placed  somewhat 
differently  in  the  various  series,  as  they  were  arranged  for  the  different 
groups  of  subjects.  The  general  arrangement  for  the  main  group  was 
as  follows:  For  each  series  of  tests,  one  normal  session  of  three  consecu- 
tive hours  preceded  experiments  with  alcohol.  Then  followed  one 
session  each  with  the  smaller  and  larger  dose  of  alcohol  respectively, 
given  after  the  normal  of  the  day.  A  final  normal  session  concluded 
the  work  of  each  subject  hi  each  series  of  experiments.  The  psycho- 
pathic subjects  began  each  of  their  two  series  of  experiments  with  a 
normal  session.  This  was  followed  by  an  alcohol  session  for  the  same 
series.  On  the  fifth  day  a  normal  session  was  given  for  the  combined 
series.  In  the  12-hour  experiments  only  two  subjects  were  used,  and 
they  were  already  familiar  with  the  tests.  The  first  day  for  each  of 
them  was  normal.  On  the  second  day  hourly  doses  of  12  c.c.  absolute 
alcohol  were  administered  after  the  normal  of  the  day.  In  all  cases  the 
alcohol  was  administered  after  dilution  with  5  volumes  of  water,  cereal 
coffee,  or  other  flavoring  liquid.  The  arrangement  as  outlined  above 
provided  for  normal  sessions  before  and  after  the  alcohol  sessions. 
This  gave  an  adequate  normal  base-line  for  the  experiments,  and 
provided  that  any  effects  of  practice  in  the  various  tests  which  might 
appear  in  the  alcohol  sessions  must  also  appear  in  the  normal. 

U.  term  first  used  in  alcohol  experiments  by  Prof.  J.  W.  Warren.  (Journ.  Physiol.,  1887,  8,  p.  311.) 
2Rivers,  The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Other  Drugs  on  Fatigue,  London,  1908. 


22  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

CONTROL  MIXTURES. 

As  our  program  indicated  (Appendix  I,  p.  272)  we  were  unmindful 
neither  of  the  advisability  nor  of  the  difficulty  of  preparing  a  suitable 
control  mixture  to  be  used  on  normal  days  in  place  of  the  dose  of  alcohol. 
Since  the  discussion  of  Rivers,1  the  regular  use  of  control  doses  has 
become  a  touchstone  of  accuracy  in  psycho-physiological  experiments 
with  drugs.  The  function  of  the  control  mixture  is  to  prevent  the 
subject's  knowing  which  are  normal  and  which  are  alcohol  sessions. 
As  Rivers  himself  notes,  such  control  doses  are  relatively  easy  to  pre- 
pare in  the  case  of  caffein  and  relatively  difficult  in  the  case  of  alcohol. 
The  difficulty  in  the  case  of  alcohol  became  more  and  more  apparent 
as  our  preparations  progressed. 

With  the  help  of  the  various  chemists  of  the  Nutrition  Laboratory, 
and  the  advice  of  a  number  of  physiologists,  a  variety  of  possible 
control  mixtures  were  considered.  A  number  of  these,  including  the 
preparation  advised  by  Rivers,2  were  tried  on  ourselves  and  other 
members  of  the  Laboratory  staff.  None  of  them  proved  to  be  entirely 
satisfactory.  In  every  case  the  alcohol  mixture  of  a  concentration 
anywhere  approximating  20  per  cent  could  always  be  detected  by  com- 
petent observers,  even  when  the  flavoring  was  sufficiently  strong  to 
raise  serious  questions  as  to  its  pharmaceutical  indifference.  Wiping 
the  rim  of  the  glass  which  contained  the  control  mixture  with  alcohol 
introduced  a  somewhat  confusing  discrepancy  between  smell  and  taste, 
but  the  alcohol  "taste,"  its  peculiar  stinging  warmth,  was  never  even 
approximately  masked.  If  enough  capsicum  were  put  into  the  control 
dose  to  produce  a  sting  at  all  comparable  to  that  of  the  alcohol,  it  was 
conspicuously  different  in  its  subjective  after-effects.  But  even  then 
the  control  dose  seemed  flat. 

In  those  cases  where  the  administration  of  control  mixtures  seemed 
imperative,  i.  e.,  for  the  psychopathic  subjects,  we  used  Rivers's  mix- 
ture, substituting  1  c.c.  strong  infusion  of  quassia  for  the  capsicum. 
We  substituted  the  quassia  for  the  capsicum  because  of  its  pharma- 
ceutical indifference  and  because  of  the  general  capacity  of  a  strong 
bitter  to  cover  other  tastes.  The  mixture  has  good  precedents ;  quassia 
was  used  by  Zimmerberg,3  and  by  Von  der  Muhll  and  Jaquet.4  It 
produces  a  medicine-like  taste  which  apparently  distracts  the  attention 
from  the  other  ingredients.  While  in  these  experiments  none  of  the 

•Rivera,  The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Other  Drugs  on  Fatigue,  London,  1908. 
'Concerning  his  recent  experience  with  the  control  mixture  Professor  Rivers  kindly  save  us 
information  by  letter.     The  control  finally  adopted  by  him  is  as  follows: 

Concentrated  compound  infusion  of  orange 0.5  drachm. 

Elixir  saccharine 1     minim. 

Alcohol  or  water 1      ounce. 

Liquor  capsici to  taste. 

'Zimmerberg,  Untenmchungen  Qber  den  Einfiuss  des  Alkohols  auf  die  Thatigkeit  des  Hensen*. 
Dissertation.     Dorpat,  I860. 
4Von  der  MuhJl  and  Jaquet.  Corresp.-Blatt  f.  schweircr  Aento.  1891.  21,  p.  457. 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  23 

psychopathic  subjects  knew  whether  or  not  alcohol  was  being  given, 
they  all  spontaneously  remarked  that  the  dose  with  alcohol  was 
"stronger"  than  the  other.  Even  the  hard  drinker  (Subject  XIII) 
specified  that  it  felt  warm  in  the  stomach. 

There  appear  to  be  only  three  adequate  means  for  masking  the 
alcohol:  capsules,  stomach  or  duodenal  tube,  and  intravenous  injec- 
tions. It  seemed  to  us  that  the  use  of  any  of  the  three  would  violate 
the  principle  of  simplicity;  that  is,  all  of  them  would  introduce  into 
the  experimental  process  more  or  less  distracting  if  not  annoying  con- 
ditions which  would  be  subject  to  enormous  adaptive  variations  as 
the  experiment  progressed.  Capsules  seemed  inexpedient  because  of 
the  size  and  number  that  would  be  necessary  to  ingest  30  c.c.  of 
alcohol  in  suitable  dilution.  Many  subjects  would  apparently  be 
unavailable  if  large  capsules  were  used,  through  inability  to  swallow 
them.  The  stomach-tube  would  doubtless  be  less  objectionable  after 
sufficient  practice,  but  the  judgment  of  various  physicians  was  that  it 
would  take  some  subjects  so  long  to  become  even  relatively  indifferent 
to  it  that  it  was  inexpedient  for  us  to  try  it.  The  use  of  intravenous 
injections  apparently  presented  too  many  possibilities  for  serious 
trouble.  We  believe,  however,  that  if  it  becomes  essential  to  com- 
pletely mask  the  alcohol  dose,  some  one  of  these  devices  must  be  used. 

It  seems  clear  to  us  that  if  the  alcohol  must  be  masked  it  must  be 
masked  completely,  with  no  unregulated  instances  of  half-knowledge  or 
doubt,  controlled  only  by  the  subject's  impression  that  the  degree  of 
knowledge  did  not  influence  the  results.  The  difficulties  of  really 
masking  the  alcohol,  the  questionable  pharmaceutical  action  of  strong 
flavors,  and  the  final  probability  that  some  of  the  subjects  would  know 
what  they  were  getting,  or  at  least  be  more  or  less  conscious  of  differ- 
ences in  the  doses,  led  us  to  scrutinize  more  closely  the  grounds  for 
attempting  to  mask  the  alcohol  and  to  keep  the  subject  ignorant  of  the 
fact  that  he  was  taking  it.  The  fundamental  theoretical  grounds  for 
masking  the  ingestion  of  alcohol  by  the  use  of  control  mixtures  is  the 
increased  similarity  of  the  experimental  conditions  in  normal  and  in 
alcohol  experiments.  Aside  from  the  matter  of  taste,  which  should 
properly  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  total  action  of  the  drug,  this  is  a 
valid  ground;  but  it  is  significant  only  if  the  knowledge  that  the 
subject  had  taken  alcohol  might  probably  modify  the  course  of  the 
experiment.  In  his  own  case,  Rivers1  was  led  to  suspect  just  such  a 
modification  of  the  results.  He  found  (p.  20)  "that  the  days  on  which 
I  took  the  drug  interested  me  more  than  the  normal  days  on  which 
nothing  was  taken."  While  in  his  own  case  the  control  mixtures  were 
"usually  wholly  indistinguishable"  from  those  which  contained  the 
active  substances,  Rivers  remarks  (p.  66),  concerning  the  attempts  to 
disguise  the  alcohol,  that  "the  disguise  is  much  more  difficult  than  in 

'Rivers,  The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Other  Drugs  on  Fatigue,  London,  1908. 


24  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

the  case  of  caffein."  While  it  was  "very  difficult  to  distinguish  the 
two  from  one  another  when  the  dose  was  small,"  with  doses  of  24 
to  40  c.c.,  such  as  were  used  hi  his  work  with  the  ergograph,  Rivers 
regarded  it  as  probable  that  the  alcohol  would  be  recognized;  conse- 
quently he  adopted  the  additional  precaution  of  comparing  two  dif- 
ferent doses.  In  other  words,  in  experiments  on  alcohol,  Rivers  felt 
obliged  to  supplement  the  doubtful  efficacy  of  control  mixtures  by  the 
systematic  arrangement  of  his  experiments.  We  carried  this  process 
to  its  only  logical  conclusion  in  experiments  on  alcohol,  i.e.,  to  develop 
as  far  as  practicable  the  controls  that  are  dependent  on  the  nature  of 
the  experiments  as  well  as  those  that  are  dependent  on  their  systematic 
arrangement.  These  internal  preventatives  of  the  effect  of  bias  we 
believe  to  be  particularly  effective  in  our  experiments,  since  one  of  the 
main  principles  of  selection  of  measurable  phenomena  was  the  greatest 
povssible  freedom  of  the  process  from  the  interplay  of  arbitrary  and 
capricious  voluntary  modification.  The  danger  of  such  bias  must 
have  been  much  greater  in  ergographic  experiments,  in  which  the 
complex  interrelation  between  capacity  and  effort  is  subject  to  large 
and  uncontrollable  variations.  It  must  have  been  peculiarly  great 
while  the  experimenter  served  as  subject.  After  mature  consideration, 
in  view  of  the  impracticability  of  completely  masking  the  "taste"  of 
the  alcohol,  in  view  of  our  systematic  precautions  against  voluntary 
modification  of  our  experimental  results,  and  in  view  of  the  character 
and  variety  of  our  subjects,  we  decided  that  the  regular  use  of  highly 
flavored  control  mixtures  be  abandoned,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
psychopathic  subjects,  in  whom  the  knowledge  that  alcohol  was  being 
taken  might  conceivably  have  produced  some  agitation.  We  believe 
that  the  nature  and  systematic  arrangement  of  our  experiments,  on 
the  latter  of  which  Rivers  himself  came  finally  to  rely  in  alcohol  experi- 
ments, contain  more  efficient  controls  than  could  be  produced  by  the 
use  of  doubtful  control  mixtures. 

SUBJECTS. 

The  selection  of  subjects  presented  a  number  of  practical  difficulties. 
In  accordance  with  our  program  (p.  267),  it  seemed  desirable  to  inves- 
tigate the  effects  of  alcohol  on  total  abstainers,  occasional  users, 
moderate  users,  habitual  drinkers  exceeding  30  c.c.  of  absolute  alcohol 
a  day,  and  on  excessive  drinkers.  Of  these  groups,  the  first  and  last 
proved  most  difficult  to  secure. 

With  respect  to  the  first  group  the  practical  difficulties  were  social 
and  moral,  on  the  one  hand,  and  theoretical  on  the  other.  In  the  first 
place,  we  were  loth  to  assume  responsibility  for  administering  alcohol 
to  total  abstainers  for  a  series  of  experimental  days.  There  was  a 
small  but  serious  risk  of  initiating  a  practice  that  might  become 
habitual  and  excessive.  In  the  second  place,  we  were  confronted  by 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  25 

the  theoretical  absurdity  that  after  the  first  experimental  ingestion  of 
alcohol  the  total  abstainer  had  ceased  to  exist  as  such.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  experimentation  he  could  scarcely  be  differentiated  from  the 
very  moderate  or  occasional  user.  A  third  difficulty  was  the  reluc- 
tance of  total  abstainers  to  serve  as  subjects,  even  for  purely  scientific 
ends.  It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  if  there  had  been  any 
chance  of  modifying  the  results  by  personal  bias,  that  chance  would 
have  been  greatest  in  the  case  of  the  total  abstainer.  Consequently 
no  serious  efforts  were  made  to  secure  a  group  of  totally  abstinent 
subjects.  One  subject  only  of  this  class  offered  himself,  Subject  VIII. 
Unfortunately,  business  engagements  interrupted  his  sessions  before 
the  series  were  completed. 

For  totally  different  reasons  the  class  of  excessive  drinkers  had  but 
one  representative,  Subject  XIII,  though  we  had  three  other  subjects 
who  at  one  time  had  been  excessive  drinkers,  the  psychopathic  Sub- 
jects XI,  XII,  and  XIV.  The  most  serious  limitation  to  this  class 
seems  to  be  that  the  excessive  drinker  especially  resents  any  consider- 
able interference  with  his  alcoholic  habits.  Our  one  subject  of  this  class 
was  a  man  who  regularly  consumed  from  one-half  to  one  pint  of 
whisky  a  day.  Except  for  some  general  observations,  his  experimental 
results  are  quite  worthless  to  us  for  the  following  reasons:  The  time 
and  amount  of  his  pre-experimental  drinking  could  not  be  determined 
nor  controlled.  Even  his  own  statements  in  the  matter  were  not  alto- 
gether convincing.  Still  more  disastrous  was  the  fact  that  he  flatly 
refused  to  abstain  long  enough  for  a  significant  normal  base-line.  He 
believed  that  he  "needed  the  whisky"  and  he  did  not  propose  to  jeop- 
ardize his  health  by  abstinence.  None  of  his  results  are  included 
in  the  tables  of  results,  as  without  a  normal  base-line  it  seemed  impos- 
sible to  give  them  intelligible  statement. 

The  most  numerous  class  of  subjects  in  our  investigation  was  that 
of  the  moderate  users.  This  resulted  partly  from  the  relative  ease 
with  which  they  could  be  obtained  and  controlled,  and  partly  because 
of  the  comparatively  small  moral  responsibility  of  the  experimenters. 
Even  in  this  class,  however,  care  was  exercised  to  secure  subjects  of 
maturity  and  stability  of  character.  Legal  age  and  graduation  from  a 
college  were  made  prerequisites  in  the  selection  of  these  subjects. 
Three  of  this  class  of  subjects  who  served  for  complete  series  of  experi- 
ments were  medical  students.  Three  others  were  of  the  rank  of 
instructors  or  interns.  One  was  one  of  the  writers. 

A  particularly  interesting  group  of  three  subjects  volunteered  from 
the  out-patient  department  of  the  Psychopathic  Hospital  of  Boston. 
All  three  had  been  under  treatment  for  excessive  alcoholism,  and  were 
still  under  observation.  They  made  excellent  subjects.  We  would 
take  this  opportunity  to  thank  publicly  Dr.  E.  E.  Southard  and  Dr. 
F.  W.  Stearns,  of  the  Psychopathic  Hospital,  for  their  cooperation 
in  securing  this  group. 


26  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  first  experimental  period,  each  subject  was 
requested  to  supply  data  for  the  following  questions: 

Identification  number,  .  Date, 

Nationality  of  father,  Mother, 

When  married? 

Number  and  ages  of  brothers  and  sisters, 
Does  father      take  any  alcohol?  ;  kind,  ;  amt.,  ;  time,  ;  effects, 

mother       "      " 

brothers     ' 

sisters        "      "          " 

Is  there  any  habitual  use  of  other  drugs  by  any  member  of  the  family? 
Any  nervous  or  mental  disease  in  the  family  history? 
Any  excessive  use  of  alcohol  in  family  history? 

Subject's  age,  ;  height,  ;  weight,  ;  occupation,  ;  sport, 

Education,  ;  college  or  high  school,  ;  place,  ;  scholarship,  ;  beat 

studies,  ;  worst, 

Verbal  memory,  ;  quick,  ;  accurate,  ;long,  ;  responsive, 

If  abstainer,  what  are  the  reasons?  moral,  ;  scientific,  ;  practical, 

family,  ;  social,  ;  accidental, 

If  non-abstainer,  kind,  ;  amt.,  ;  time,  ;  effects, 

Largest  amt.  ever  taken?  kind,  ;  time,  ;  effects, 

Last  use?  amt.,  ;       "  ;        "  ;        " 

Ever  intoxicated?  ;  when,  ;  kind,  ;  how  often? 

How  much  without  noticeable  effect?  ;  kind,  ;  time, 

First  noticeable  effects, 

excitement  or  the  contrary,  ;  normal, 

talkative  or  the  contrary,  ; 

happy  or  the  contrary, 

peculiar  sensations, 

effect  on  flow  of  ideas, 

effect  on  affection,  ;  temper, 

effect  on  pain,  mental,  ;  physical, 

effect  on  routine  work,  ;  strength,  ;  accuracy,  ;  ease, 

effect  on  sense  of  propriety,  ;  on  morals, 

effect  on  digestion,  ;  urine, 

Use  of  tea  and  coffee, 
When  last  examined  for  life  insurance,  ;  what  company, 

In  each  case  the  subject  was  assured  that  his  replies  and  the  experi- 
mental data  would  be  published  anonymously.  Every  precaution  was 
taken  by  the  experimenter  to  secure  accurate  replies.  A  complete  set 
of  these  histories  of  our  subjects  is  published  in  Appendix  II. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  last  experimental  session  each  subject  was 
given  the  following  form,  which  he  was  required  to  read,  fill  out,  and 
sign.  No  serious  "exceptions"  were  noted  under  this  form  by  any  of 
the  subjects. 

The  undersigned  hereby  makes  affidavit  on  his  honor  as  a  gentleman: 

(1)  That  all  data  given  by  me  concerning  last  ingestion  of  food,  and  the  use  of  alcohol, 
were  correct  according  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  and  belief,  except  as  herein  specified. 

(2)  That  there  has  been  no  conscious  modification  of  effort  or  attention  to  modify  the 
roulta;  and  that  there  has  been  no  intention  to  modify  them,  except  as  herein  specified. 

(3)  That  there  has  been  no  discussion  of  the  experiments  and  their  probable  results  with 
any  person  outside  the  psychological  laboratory,  except  as  herein  specified.     (Please  be  full 
as  to  time  and  nature  of  the  conversation,  if  there  are  exceptions.) 

(4)  That  there  has  been  no  habitual  use  of  drugs  during  the  experimental  weeks,  and  no 
occasional  use  of  any  drug  that  might  modify  the  effects  of  the  alcohol  as  far  as  I  know, 
except  as  herein  specified. 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  27 

STATISTICAL  EXPRESSION  OF  THE  MEASUREMENTS. 

In  our  previous  discussion  of  the  general  methodological  considera- 
tions we  have  pointed  out  certain  limitations  in  the  outside  control  of 
our  subjects.  It  is  in  several  respects  unfortunate  that  the  3  hours  of 
confinement  in  the  laboratory  determined  the  practical  limits  of  strict 
experimental  procedure.  To  have  predetermined  for  all  our  subjects 
the  antecedent  ingestion  of  foods  and  fluids,  antecedent  voiding  of 
feces  and  urine,  antecedent  amounts  and  kinds  of  mental  and  physical 
activity,  and  antecedent  periods  of  rest,  with  fixed  waking  and  sleeping 
hours,  would  have  been  difficult,  if  not  impracticable.  But  even  these 
precautions,  valuable  as  they  might  be,  must  have  failed  to  provide 
strict  similarity  of  conditions  on  successive  days.  Experimental  inter- 
ference with  the  spontaneous  reactions  of  intelligent  and  busy  men 
in  their  routine  demands  for  food  and  drink,  work  and  rest,  might 
easily  produce  mental  and  even  purely  physical  disturbances  which  it 
would  be  difficult  or  impossible  to  measure.  At  best  we  could  not 
control  the  immediate  and  remote  effects  of  "  colds,"  intestinal  disturb- 
ances, and  other  slight  infections  of  the  mucous  membrane.  It  would 
be  obviously  impossible  to  take  account  of  all  these  and  numberless 
similar  variations,  and  at  the  same  time  provide  for  similar  phases  of 
the  weekly  and  yearly  rhythms,  possible  climatic  changes,  etc.  A  pre- 
liminary exploration  of  the  possible  disturbances  to  discover  their  re- 
spective significance  for  each  of  our  subjects  would  have  been  entirely 
impracticable.  Admitting  the  desirability  of  enforcing  stricter  experi- 
mental conditions  outside  of  laboratory  hours,  it  seems  that  the  best 
practical  procedure  in  the  use  of  subjects  whose  outside  activities  are 
not  strictly  regulated  is  to  treat  all  except  obvious  or  gross  disturb- 
ances as  chance  variations,  which  can  not  obscure  any  really  significant 
tendency  in  the  group,  provided  the  measurements  are  numerous 
enough  and  their  statistical  treatment  is  adequate. 

In  thus  emphasizing  the  group  system  of  comparison  we  are  merely 
following  established  precedents  in  this  laboratory  since  its  beginning. 
The  resources  and  facilities  of  the  laboratory  are  such  as  to  make  it 
practically  obligatory  that  conclusions  should  not  be  drawn  from  exper- 
imental data  until  there  are  sufficiently  large  groups  of  individuals 
on  whom  the  special  observations  have  been  made,  and  a  sufficiently 
large  number  of  normal  experiments  for  adequate  comparison.  In  the 
previously  published  studies  from  this  Laboratory  on  diabetes  and 
on  the  metabolism  of  athletes,  vegetarians,  and  normal  and  atrophic 
infants,  the  group  system  has  been  invariably  applied. 

Our  main  statistical  requirement,  after  provision  is  made  for  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  accurate  measurements  of  significant  and  systematic- 
ally related  processes,  is  to  provide  for  the  best  basis  of  comparison  of 
the  normal  and  alcohol  experiments. 


28  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

We  have  raised  serious  objection  to  expressing  the  effect  of  alcohol 
by  any  difference  in  the  measurements  of  the  experimental  processes 
before  and  after  the  dose  is  administered.1  Such  an  expression  would 
fail  to  show  any  accidental  inhibition  of  normal  changes,  while  it  would 
improperly  include  all  changes  due  to  other  intercurrent  tendencies, 
such  as  the  results  of  enforced  quiet,  of  repetition,  of  regular  daily 
rhythms,  etc.  There  are  even  greater  objections  to  expressing  the 
effect  of  alcohol  by  the  difference  in  the  averages  of  measurements 
which  are  made  on  normal  and  on  alcohol  days  respectively.  Such 
expressions  would  improperly  include  all  the  accidental  peculiarities 
of  the  condition  of  the  subject  on  the  respective  days,  such  as  changes 
of  general  well-being,  fatigue,  and  mild  infections,  all  the  seasonal 
rhythms,  climatic  changes,  etc.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  if  the 
number  of  experiments  were  sufficiently  large,  and  if  they  were  spread 
over  a  number  of  years,  the  accidental  errors  in  this  method  of  ex- 
pression would  tend  to  balance. 

The  real  statistical  problem  is  to  find  an  impartial  expression  for  the 
effects  of  alcohol  from  a  relatively  small  number  of  experiments  on  a 
subject  on  any  experimental  day.  It  should  tend  to  exclude  the  short 
rhythmic  and  arrhythmic  changes  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  longer 
changes  in  general  condition  on  the  other,  leaving  as  exclusively  as 
possible  just  those  precise  changes  that  are  occasioned  by  the  experi- 
ment itself.  We  believe  that  on  the  whole  these  requirements  are  best 
met  by  the  average  differences  between  the  "normal  of  the  day"  and 
subsequent  measurements  on  normal  and  alcohol  days  respectively. 

The  normal  of  a  day,  it  will  be  remembered,  is  the  result  of  meas- 
urements which  are  obtained  during  the  first  period  of  each  session. 
The  first  period  in  our  experiments  was  always  normal,  even  on  days 
when  an  alcohol  dose  was  subsequently  administered.  The  normal 
of  any  day  should  consequently  represent  the  general  condition  of  the 
subject  on  that  particular  day.  The  average  differences  between  the 
normal  of  the  day  and  subsequent  measurements  on  a  normal  day 
should  represent  the  normal  rhythmic  and  arrhythmic  tendencies  of  an 
experimental  session.  Deviations  of  the  average  difference  after  alco- 
hol from  a  normal  average  difference  should  come  as  near  as  possible 
to  expressing  the  actual  change  produced  by  the  alcohol  alone. 

In  all  our  statistical  expressions,  then,  these  average  differences 
between  the  first  and  subsequent  periods  are  of  primary  importance. 
In  our  tables  they  are  commonly  accompanied  by  a  statement  of 
average  measurements,  but  the  latter  are  regarded  as  of  relatively  little 
importance.  They  are  only  given  as  details  that  may  be  of  interest 
to  some  future  investigator  who  may  be  measuring  similar  processes. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  average  differences  may  be  expressed 
either  in  absolute  units  or  in  percentiles.  The  percentile  expression  is 

'Page  18. 


PLAN   OF   THE    INVESTIGATION.  29 

probably  more  useful  for  comparing  one  individual,  dosage,  or  process 
with  the  others.  The  main  objection  to  the  percentile  is  that  it  elimi- 
nates every  vestige  of  the  units  in  which  the  measurements  were 
actually  made.  It  is  useful  for  comparative  purposes  to  know  the 
percentage  of  change.  It  is  also  important  to  know  these  same  changes 
in  terms  of  the  unit  of  measurement.  Our  summaries  will  contain 
both  values. 

The  methods  for  computing  these  various  values  are  not  especially 
significant.  It  is  important  only  that  they  be  uniform  and  clearly 
understood.  The  average  difference  of  a  day's  measurements  is  obtained 
as  follows: 

Av.  D.  =  (1-2)  +  (1-3)  +  (1-4)  +  (l~fQ 
n 

That  is,  the  sum  of  the  algebraic  results  of  subtracting  the  various 
subsequent  measurements  from  the  normal  of  the  day  is  divided  by 
the  number  of  periods.  If  the  Av.  D.  has  a  minus  sign  it  shows 
that  the  measured  values  are  larger  as  the  session  progresses.  Con- 
versely, if  the  Av.  D.  has  a  positive  sign  it  shows  that  on  the  average 
the  subsequent  measurements  are  less  than  the  normal  of  the  day. 
The  effect  of  alcohol  as  expressed  in  Av.  D.  is  computed  as  follows: 

Effect  of  alcohol  =  the  Av.  D.  on  alcohol  days  minus 
the  Av.  D.  on  normal  days. 

If  the  effect  of  alcohol  has  a  plus  sign,  then  the  +Av.  D.  on  alcohol 
days  is  greater  than  the  +Av.  D.  on  normal  days,  or  the  latter  has  a 
negative  sign.  Similarly,  mutatis  mutandis,  if  the  effect  of  alcohol  has 
a  negative  sign.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  sign  of  the  effect  in  all 
cases  is  a  result  of  the  statistical  procedure.  It  does  not  indicate 
whether  the  effect  of  alcohol  increases  or  decreases  the  sensitivity  of  a 
process  unless  it  is  interpreted  in  the  light  of  its  origin. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  as  expressed  in  percentiles  retains  the  same  sign  as 
when  the  effect  is  given  in  the  units  of  measurement.  It  is  computed 
by  dividing  the  latter  by  the  average  of  the  relevant  normals  of  the  day. 

For  the  convenience  of  the  reader,  these  various  mathematical 
expressions  are  commonly  reinterpreted  as  they  occur  in  the  tables  and 
the  text. 

DOSAGE. 

Neither  in  the  experimental  literature  nor  in  the  theoretical  dis- 
cussions is  there  any  uniform  standard  of  alcohol  dosage.  Probably 
the  most  satisfactory  arrangement  of  the  dosage,  in  man  as  in  animals, 
would  be  according  to  some  definite  percentage  of  the  mass  of  the  blood. 
This  would  appear  to  be  necessary  in  all  attempts  to  measure  individual 
differences.  In  view  of  our  relatively  simpler  problem,  we  chose  to 
follow  the  easier  traditional  usage  in  these  experiments,  and  administer 
the  alcohol  in  fixed  doses  for  all  subjects.  The  quantity  of  alcohol  in 


30  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

a  "moderate  dose"  is  determined  neither  by  general  experimental 
agreement  nor  by  convention.  Single  experimental  doses  vary  in  the 
literature  from  10  c.c.  to  100  c.c.  and  over.  Almost  any  size  of  dose 
would  have  precedents  enough.  Meyer  and  Gottlieb1  place  the  "stimu- 
lating" dose  for  abstemious  adults  at  30  to  40  grams,  adding  that  for 
those  accustomed  to  its  use  the  dose  must  be  larger.  As  a  standard 
dose  we  adopted  what  seemed  to  be  a  fair  average  of  30  c.c.  (actually 
29.8  c.c.).  In  the  text  we  refer  to  this  standard  dose  as  dose  A? 

Two  variations  of  the  standard  dose  were  made  for  methodological 
reasons.  In  the  12-hour  experiments,  12  c.c.  was  given  hourly  for  8 
consecutive  hours,  excepting  the  hour  of  lunch.  This  is  called  in  the 
text  dose  C.  A  dose  of  45  c.c.  (actually  44.7  c.c.)  was  given  to  the 
regular  group  of  moderate  drinkers  on  a  sufficient  number  of  experi- 
mental days  to  obtain  adequate  measurements  in  Series  I  A,  II  A,  and  V. 
We  refer  to  this  dose  in  the  text  as  dose  B. 

In  order  to  relieve  somewhat  the  disagreeable  raw  taste  of  the 
diluted  alcohol,  one-third  of  the  total  volume  consisted  of  a  solution 
of  cereal  "coffee."3  Fruit  juices,  which  we  tried,  proved  to  be  dis- 
agreeable to  one  of  the  first  subjects  and  were  consequently  abandoned. 
The  liquids  were  invariably  drunk  at  room  temperature,  about  20°  C. 
The  total  volume  of  dose  A  was  150  c.c.;  that  of  dose  B  was  225  c.c. 
In  all  cases  the  alcohol  and  control  mixtures  were  administered  by 
mouth,  the  subjects  being  instructed  to  drink  the  mixtures  as  rapidly 
as  convenient. 

GENERAL  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  APPARATUS. 

The  research  occupied  a  specially  constructed  laboratory  of  the 
Nutrition  Laboratory,  measuring  about  5.5  by  3.5  meters,  with  a 
balcony  about  4.5  by  3.5  meters.  All  the  experimental  records  were 
made  in  this  room.  The  incidental  photographic  work,  such  as 
loading  the  plate  and  paper  holders,  and  developing  the  photographic 
records,  was  done  in  a  small  dark-room  which  was  partitioned  off  in  one 
corner  of  this  laboratory. 

Uniform  lighting  of  the  room  during  experimental  sessions  was 
insured  by  shutting  out  the  variable  daylight  altogether,  and  by  the 
use  of  incandescent  electric  lights.  Ventilation  was  provided  for  by 
forced  draught.  An  electric  fan  to  provide  free  circulation  of  air  in 

'Meyer  and  Gottlieb,  Experimentelle  Pharmakologie,  Berlin,  1914. 

*In  the  original  preparation  of  the  standard  solution  of  pure  grain  alcohol  to  be  used  in  this 
research,  emphasis  was  laid  upon  the  constancy  of  the  amount  in  each  dose  rather  than  the 
absolute  values.  Owing  to  a  misstatement  on  my  part.  Professor  Dodge  used  the  values  25  c.c. 
and  37.5  c.c.  as  representing  the  amount  of  absolute  alcohol  in  the  two  doses  employed  in  this 
research  in  giving  preliminary  reports  of  the  work  at  the  1914  meeting  of  Experimental  Psychol- 
ogists at  Columbia  University,  and  at  the  Philadelphia  meeting  of  the  American  Psychological 
Association  in  1915  The  true  values  should  have  been  30  c.c.  and  15  c.c.,  respectively.  The 
error  is  wholly  mine.  F.  G.  B. 

'Prepared  from  roasted  cereal  and  obviously  free  from  caffein. 


PLAN    OF   THE    INVESTIGATION. 


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32  I'Mt  HnLOGICAL   EFFECTS   <>1     Al.rnHOL. 

the  room  was  commonly  kept  in  motion  during  experiments,  but 
naturally  it  was  not  allowed  to  blow  directly  on  the  subject. 

A  general  plan  of  the  room  and  apparatus  is  given  in  figure  1.  A 
general  photographic  view  is  given  in  the  frontispiece.  The  string 
galvanometer  equipment  for  pulse-records  occupied  one  side  of  the 
room  (bottom  of  the  plan).  The  galvanometer  itself  occupied  the 
central  table  G.  A  hand-fed  horizontal  carbon  arc  light  L',  burning 
at  5  amperes,  supplied  its  illumination.  A  separate  controlling  table 
at  the  left  of  the  galvanometer  table  provided  the  space  for  resistances, 
switches,  etc.  The  recording  camera  RC  occupied  still  another  table, 
shown  at  the  extreme  left  hand. 

The  main  apparatus  table,  approximately  in  the  middle  of  the  floor, 
held  the  following  apparatus:  inductorium  and  resistance  boxes  for  the 
Faradic  threshold  (Martin  measurements);  enlarging  camera  for 
photographing  the  eye-movements  and  eye-reactions;  the  word-expos- 
ure apparatus;  and  the  Blix-Sandstrom  kymograph,  for  patellar  reflex 
and  memory  test.  A  separate  table,  shown  at  the  upper  left  of  the 
plan,  held  the  camera  for  the  lid-reflex  records.  The  source  of  light 
for  these  various  photographic  records  was  the  self-regulating  arc  light 
L  at  the  right. 

Figure  2  is  from  a  photograph  of  the  main  apparatus  table  from  the 
corner  of  the  room  which  was  normally  occupied  by  the  recording 
camera  for  the  string  galvanometer.  It  shows  the  Blix-Sandstrom 
kymograph  in  the  foreground,  with  the  patellar-reflex  apparatus  and 
word-exposure  device  at  the  right,  and  the  voice-reaction  key  at  the 
left.  In  the  background  is  the  camera  for  eye-movements,  with  its 
head-rest  at  the  left.  At  the  extreme  upper  left  is  shown  the  noise- 
stimulus  key  for  the  protective  lid-reflex,  and  a  part  of  the  lid-reflex 
camera. 

In  figure  3  we  have  a  view  of  the  same  table  from  the  position  of  the 
self-regulating  arc  light,  i.  e.,  from  the  extreme  right  end  of  figure  1 .  In 
the  center  foreground  are  the  inductorium,  mil-ammeter,  and  resistance 
boxes  for  the  Faradic  threshold.  Beyond  these  the  Blix-Sandstrom 
kymograph  is  seen  in  end-view.  The  patellar-reflex  apparatus  appears 
at  the  left.  On  the  right  appears  the  long  enlarging  camera  for  the  eye- 
movements. 

All  measurements,  except  those  of  Series  V,  i.  e.,  except  the  associ- 
ation and  Faradic  threshold  measurements,  were  made  with  the  sub- 
ject either  at  position  I  or  position  II,  figure  1.  In  Series  V  the  subject 
and  Dr.  Wells,  the  operator,  occupied  the  balcony. 


FIG.  2. — Main  apparatus  table  in  psychological  laboratory  (first  view). 


FIG.  3. — Main  apparatus  table  in  psychological  laboratory  (second  view). 


CHAPTER  1  1. 
EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  SIMPLEST  NEURAL  ARCS. 

Pursuant  to  the  principles  on  which  this  investigation  was  organized, 
a  study  of  the  simplest  reflex  arcs  under  the  influence  of  alcohol  is  held 
to  be  of  basal  importance.  Since  the  simple  reflexes  are  conspicuously 
free  from  direct  voluntary  control,  as  well  as  from  the  effects  of  practice, 
they  should  furnish  unambiguous  and  conclusive  evidence  of  the  effect 
of  alcohol  on  the  particular  group  of  tissues  on  which  they  depend. 
As  the  simplest  complete  neuro-muscular  process,  they  should  furnish 
a  basis  for  the  interpretation  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  more 
complex  ones,  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  rest  of  the  systematically 
related  processes,  they  should  furnish  evidence  of  the  relative  inci- 
dence of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  various  neural  levels  of  the  same 
individual. 

In  view  of  its  theoretical  importance,  quantitative  knowledge  of  the 
action  of  the  simple  human  reflexes  under  alcohol  is  surprisingly  scanty. 
Bunge1  asserts  that  reflex  excitability  is  decreased  by  alcohol,  basing 
his  assertion  on  a  single  apparently  incomplete  reference  to  J.  C.  Th. 
Scheffer.2  Sternberg3  holds  that  alcohol  operates  at  first  to  increase 
the  reflexes.  He  gives  no  references. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  on  animal  reflex  is  better  known.  In  1873, 
Meihuizen4  studied  the  effect  of  various  drugs  on  the  reflex  excitability 
of  the  frog  to  induction  shocks.  In  his  three  specimens,  1  c.c.  of 
10  per  cent  alcohol  decreased  reflex  excitability.  The  effect  began 
within  15  minutes  and  reached  its  maximum  in  from  45  to  90  minutes. 
Of  the  many  more  or  less  casual  observations  which  are  scattered  in 
the  physiological  and  pharmacological  literature  of  animal  experi- 
mentation, we  have  found  it  impracticable  to  take  account.  That 
doses  of  alcohol  as  large  as  5  per  cent  of  the  circulation  of  the  frog 
produce  complete  inexcitability  of  the  cord  appears  in  the  work  of 
Winterstein.5  The  most  complete  systematic  study  of  the  effect  of 
alcohol  on  the  frog  reflexes  is  that  of  Hyde,  Spray,  and  Howat.6  They 
found  that  alcohol  in  doses  stronger  than  1  c.c.  of  15  per  cent  solution 
per  10  gm.  of  weight  depressed  all  the  reflexes  of  the  frog.  The  depres- 
sion differed  for  the  different  reflexes  and  for  different  doses.  The 
depression  came  in  10  minutes  after  the  dose,  and  lasted  1  to  1^  hours. 
The  relatively  larger  number  of  studies  of  the  reaction  of  the  inverte- 
brate organisms  to  alcohol  have  no  direct  bearing  on  our  present  prob- 
lem, since  the  anatomical  and  physiological  conditions  are  so  different. 


e,  Lehrbuch  der  Physiologic  des  Menschen,  Leipsic,  1903,  p.  209. 
2Scheffer,  Nederl.  Weekbl.,  1900,  p.  217  (not  accessible,  reference  apparently  incomplete). 
3Sternberg,  Die  Sehnenreflexe,  Leipsic,  1893,  p.  177. 
<Meihuizen,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1873,  7,  p.  201. 
'Winterstein,  Zeitschr.  f.  allg.  Physiol.,  1902,  1,  p.  19. 
•Hyde,  Spray  and  Howat,  Am.  Journ.  Phyaiol.,  1912-13,  31,  p.  309. 


34  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

AVAILABLE  HUMAN  REFLEXES. 

A  considerable  number  of  relatively  simple  neural  arcs  are  available, 
even  in  human  subjects,  for  more  or  less  accurate  quantitative  study. 
Some  of  them  have  assumed  considerable  diagnostic  importance  with- 
out a  corresponding  development  of  satisfactory  quantitative  tech- 
niques. The  swallowing  reflex,  the  skin  reflexes,  the  semicircular- 
canal  reflexes,  the  pupil  reflex,  the  corneal  reflex,  and  many  of  the 
tendon  reflexes  are  in  regular  clinical  use.  But  their  clinical  investi- 
gation is  generally  satisfied  by  cataloguing  the  case  under  one  of  three 
or  four  general  categories,  such  as  absent,  depressed,  moderate,  and 
exaggerated.  Change  of  a  case  from  one  category  to  another  repre- 
sents a  relatively  profound  disturbance.  Accurate  techniques  for 
measuring  small  differences  would  perhaps  be  too  time-consuming  for 
clinical  purposes.  Their  development  for  special  experimental  investi- 
gations has  followed  the  development  of  definite  experimental  problems. 

While  none  of  the  available  reflexes  may  be  ignored  in  a  study  like 
the  present,  certain  of  them  have  a  better  experimental  status  than 
others.  Such,  for  example,  are  a  few  of  the  tendon  reflexes,  particu- 
larly the  patellar  reflex  and  the  Achilles  reflex,  the  pupil  reflex,  and  the 
protective  lid-reflex.  Experimental  techniques  for  the  measurement 
of  these  reflexes  have  been  developed  so  that  they  are  dependable. 
This  was  our  main  reason  in  selecting  the  patellar  reflex  and  the 
protective  lid-reflex  for  immediate  investigation.  In  choosing  these 
two  arcs  we  were  also  influenced  by  several  other  considerations.  It 
seemed  advisable:  (1)  to  study  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  nervous 
system  at  as  widely  different  reflex  levels  as  practicable;  (2)  to  use 
reflex  arcs  of  similar  latency,  and  presumably  similar  complexity ;  and 
(3)  to  avoid  fatigue  and  adaptation  phenomena. 

The  patellar  reflex  appeared  most  suitable  as  a  representative  of  the 
lowest  spinal  level.  On  a  variety  of  grounds  one  would  have  preferred 
the  Achilles  reflex.  For  instance,  it  is  less  subject  to  accidental  ana- 
tomical conditions  than  the  patellar  reflex.  That  is,  length  of  tendon 
and  the  underlying  cushions  of  connective  tissue  effect  less  extreme  indi- 
vidual differences  in  the  Achilles  than  in  the  patellar  reflex.  Opposed 
to  this  advantage  are  certain  technical  difficulties  in  recording  the 
Achilles  reflex  from  the  thickening  of  isometric  muscle,  and  the  practical 
necessity  for  the  subject  to  assume  an  unusual  position  with  more  or 
less  variable  antecedent  muscular  activity.  The  patellar  reflex,  on  the 
other  hand,  can  be  recorded  from  a  sitting  or  reclining  subject  without 
moving  him  from  the  position  he  would  naturally  adopt  for  other 
neuro-muscular  measurements.  Moreover,  if  the  leg  is  prevented  from 
moving,  quadriceps  thickening  may  be  registered  from  practically  iso- 
metric muscle  by  direct  recording  levers,  resting  on  the  anterior  thigh. 

Reflexes  of  the  higher  levels  are  perhaps  best  represented  by  those  of 
the  eye.  In  particular,  the  pupil  reflex  deserves  and  has  received 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS.  35 

relatively  careful  observation.  It  is,  however,  in  no  way  analogous 
to  the  knee-jerk.  It  is  relatively  slow,  and  is  controlled  through  the 
autonomic  system.  Furthermore,  a  series  of  measurements  may  give 
rise  to  long-continued  and  painful  ocular  disturbances,  as  is  known  to 
one  of  us  from  unpleasant  personal  experience.  Finally,  the  best 
available  registering  technique  for  the  pupil  reflex  is  by  cinematograph, 
an  arrangement  that  gives  too  few  records  per  second  for  accurate 
measurements  of  latency.  For  these  reasons,  and  on  account  of  the 
necessity  of  limiting  the  selection,  the  pupil  reflex  was  omitted  from 
the  present  study. 

The  protective  lid-reflex,  on  the  contrary,  seemed  to  offer  a  perfect 
analogy  to  the  knee-jerk.  It  has  a  latency  of  the  same  order  as  the 
knee-jerk,  and  normally  changes  very  slowly  from  adaptation.  Fur- 
thermore, entirely  adequate  and  relatively  simple  technique  is  avail- 
able, by  which  uniform  stimuli  (sound)  can  be  recorded  by  the  same 
optical  system  that  records  a  movement  of  the  shadow  of  the  eyelashes. 
The  resulting  photographic  records  are  unusually  free  from  instrumental 
latency  and  distortion. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PATELLAR  REFLEX. 

The  present  investigation  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  knee-jerk  is 
based  on  the  assumption  that  the  reflex  character  of  the  human  knee- 
jerk  has  been  established.  The  classical  controversy  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  phenomenon  was  started  by  Westphal's1  contention  that  there 
was  no  evidence  for  receptors  in  the  muscle.  After  Westphal's  evi- 
dence was  weakened  by  the  discovery  of  proprio-muscular  receptors, 
Waller2  and  Gotch3  were  led  to  believe  that  the  knee-jerk  was  not  a 
reflex  because  of  the  exceedingly  low  latent  tune  that  was  required 
under  favorable  conditions  by  the  knee-jerk  of  the  rabbit. 

The  psychiatrists,  on  the  other  hand,  have  long  assumed  the  reflex 
character  of  the  human  knee-jerk.  The  clinical  value  of  the  knee- 
jerk  test  is  so  firmly  fixed  by  the  mass  of  clinical  experience  that 
psychiatry  may  be  comparatively  indifferent  to  the  question  as  to  its 
nature.  Its  diagnostic  significance  rests  secure  on  empirical  correla- 
tions. Its  physiological  exploitation,  however,  was  practically  impos- 
sible as  long  as  the  uncertainty  remained.  But  if  the  knee-jerk  is  a 
true  reflex,  it  must  be  of  value  not  only  in  diagnosis  of  nervous  disease, 
but  also  for  a  large  number  of  studies  of  the  normal  physiology  of  the 
human  reflex  arc,  such  as  the  rate  of  propagation  of  nervous  excitation 
in  human  nerves  and  in  the  cord,  for  studies  of  fatigue,  inhibition,  and 
"Bahnung,"  as  well  as  for  the  effects  of  drugs  on  man. 

A  number  of  recent  studies  have  shown  conclusively  that  whatever 
may  be  true  of  the  rabbit,  the  normal  human  knee-jerk  as  ordinarily 

"Westphal,  Archiv  f.  Psychiatric,  1875,  5,  p.  803. 
"Waller,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1890,  11,  p.  384. 
3Gotch,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1896,  20,  p.  322. 


36          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

elicited  is  a  true  reflex.  The  evidence  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
(1)  Records  of  currents  of  action  with  the  string  galvanometer  by 
Dodge  and  Bull,1  Hoffman,2  Jolly,3  Snyder,4  and  others,  show  that 
their  latency  is  too  long  for  purely  peripheral  phenomena.  On  the 
basis  of  recent  measurements  of  the  speed  of  nervous  currents  (Piper6), 
and  the  latency  of  the  cord  (Miss  Buchanan6),  these  studies  show  that 
the  latent  time  of  the  knee-jerk  is  that  of  a  true  cord  reflex,  with  the 
simplest  possible  central  organization.  (2)  In  addition,  it  appears 
from  the  character  of  the  current  of  action  that  the  impulse  is  not  a 
simple  muscle- twitch,  but  a  more  or  less  complex  contraction  wave 
which  travels  through  the  muscle  from  the  point  of  entrance  of  the 
motor  nerve.  Similar  evidence  was  obtained  by  Dodge1  from  direct 
muscle  tracings.  Photographic  records  of  the  quadriceps  contraction, 
which  were  taken  simultaneously  from  five  different  points  of  the 
muscle,  showed  a  gradual  peripheral  progression  of  the  muscle  con- 
traction. (3)  Further  evidence  is  that  with  accurate  recording  devices 
the  latent  time  of  the  human  knee-jerk  is  related  to  that  of  the  Achilles- 
jerk  directly  as  the  distance  of  the  respective  receptor-reactors  from 
the  cord.  These  differences  in  latent  time  are  best  explained  by  the 
increased  length  of  nerve-conduction.  (4)  It  was  also  found  that  the 
latent  time  of  the  knee-jerk  was  practically  identical  with  that  of 
an  undoubted  reflex,  the  protective  lid-reflex.  (5)  Finally,  in  the 
normal  human  knee-jerk,  the  quadriceps  contraction  was  found  to  be 
coordinated  with  the  contraction  of  the  flexors  of  the  leg.  Such  muscle 
coordination  can  be  explained  only  by  the  action  of  nervous  centers. 
We  have  consequently  regarded  it  as  proved  that  the  knee-jerk  is  a 
reflex. 

TECHNIQUE. 

Extended  preliminary  study  of  the  normal  knee-jerk  technique, 
undertaken  by  Dodge1  in  connection  with  a  different,  though  related, 
problem,  showed  that  the  only  satisfactory  records  of  reflex  latency 
are  those  made  from  muscle  thickening.  For  the  details  of  that  study 
we  must  refer  to  the  original  paper,  where  it  was  shown  that  the  form 
of  the  curve  and  the  apparent  latency  of  the  reflex  are  enormously  influ- 
enced by  the  nature  of  the  recording  device.  The  latency  as  recorded 
by  the  movements  of  the  leg  averaged  65 <r,  with  a  mean  variation  of 
II a.  Slight  prestimulation  activity  of  the  flexors,  to  produce  a  back- 
ward pressure  of  the  leg  against  a  fixed  support,  reduced  the  latent 
time  to  an  average  of  52 <r,  with  a  mean  variation  of  from  2. 7  a  to  4.7 <r. 
Records  from  thickening  of  the  quadriceps  muscle  by  a  system  of  light 

1Dodge,  Zeitachr.  f.  allg.  Physiol.,  1910.  12,  p.  1. 

•Hoffman.  Med.  Klinik,  1910.  6.  p.  1002. 

•Jolly,  Quart.  Journ.  exp.  Physiol.,  1911,  4,  p.  67;  British  Med.  Journ.,  1910,  2,  p.  1259. 

«Snyder.  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1910.  26,  p.  474. 

•Piper,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1908. 124,  p.  591. 

•Buchanan,  Proc.  Roy.  8oc..  1907,  B  79,  p.  503. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS.  37 

levers  reduced  the  latent  time  to  37  a,  with  a  mean  variation  within  the 
series  of  la,  or  less.  Similar  differences  between  the  latent  tune  as 
measured  respectively  by  the  movements  of  the  leg  and  by  thickening 
of  the  quadriceps  muscle  are  reported  by  Weyler.1  Partial  explana- 
tion of  these  differences  is  found  in  the  weight  of  the  leg.  A  certain 
degree  of  contraction  of  the  muscle-fibers  seems  to  be  necessary  before 
the  heavy  leg-lever  can  be  set  in  motion.  An  entirely  new  factor  in 
the  case  was  shown  by  Dodge  to  be  the  initial  forward  motion  of  the 
leg  immediately  after  the  stimulus  blow.  This  is  a  purely  mechanical 
effect,  and  is  due  to  the  virtual  shortening  of  the  tendon  of  the  extensor, 
which  is  produced  through  its  deformation  by  the  stimulus  blow.  The 
consequent  pendular  movement  of  the  leg  prevents  its  showing  the 
exact  moment  of  reaction.  This  disturbance  is  more  serious  than 
might  at  first  appear.  Since  the  deformation  of  the  tendon  increases 
with  the  weight  of  the  pendulum  hammer,  the  initial  movement  of  the 
leg,  which  has  no  direct  connection  with  the  reflex  action,  must  increase 
with  the  weight  of  the  hammer.  This  may  have  led  to  the  anomalous 
data  reported  by  Lombard,2  who  found  that,  as  measured  by  the  leg- 
movement,  the  latent  time  was  increased  by  increasing  the  weight  of 
the  hammer.  A  further  advantage  of  the  muscle-thickening  records 
is  that  they  show  the  true  course  of  the  muscle  contraction  and  disclose 
any  preliminary  stiffening  of  the  leg  to  receive  the  blow,  as  well  as  any 
arbitrary  or  voluntary  interference  with  the  course  of  contraction. 
Finally,  quadriceps  thickening  is  uninfluenced  by  the  chance  interplay 
of  flexor  antagonism. 

STIMULUS. 

In  all  quantitative  studies  of  the  knee-jerk,  the  usual  stimulus  has 
been  a  sudden  blow  on  the  patellar  tendon.  While  this  is  not  the  only 
means  of  eliciting  the  knee-jerk,  and  is  not  always  the  best  for  clinical 
purposes,  for  experimental  work  it  is  doubtless  the  most  convenient 
and  exact.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  receptors 
in  the  knee-jerk  are  intra-muscular,  and  that  their  stimulation  is  a 
sudden  muscle  deformation.  Consequently,  only  a  perfectly  regulated 
blow  on  the  tendon,  with  a  muscle  at  uniform  tension,  is  satisfactory 
for  comparative  purposes.  This  demands  a  uniform  percussion  ham- 
mer, striking  at  a  uniform  place,  with  the  limb  in  a  uniform  position. 

The  preliminary  study  favored  the  electrically  released  double, 
pendulum-percussion  hammer  which  is  shown  in  figure  4.  A  pendulum 
is  ideally  uniform  in  action  under  similar  circumstances,  and  the 
energy  of  the  blow  can  be  easily  and  simply  expressed  in  c.  g.  s.  units. 
Its  velocity  and  mass  are  independently  variable.  Both  factors  are 
directly  measurable  on  the  apparatus  and  may  be  experimentally 
changed,  easily  and  with  precision.  To  provide  for  changes  of  mass, 

1Weyler,  Zeitschr.  f.  d.  ges.  Neur.  u.  Psychiat.,  1910,  1,  p.  116. 
'Lombard,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1889,  10,  p.  139. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL    EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


MM 


our  pendulum  bobs  were  hollow  cylinders  (C",  C",  fig.  4),  into  which 
closely  fitting  lead  weights,  which  were  accurately  adjusted  to  the 
desired  totals,  could  be  inserted  and  clamped.  In  our  experiments, 
the  total  masses  of  the  bobs  were  respectively  30,  50,  75,  and  100  grams. 
Magnetic  release  for  the  pendulum-percussion  hammers  provided 
for  accurate  timing  of  the  stimuli  by  means  of  a  circuit-breaker  at- 
tached to  the  shaft  of  the  kymograph.  The  magnets  which  held  the 
hammers  (M't  Af  ",  fig.  4)  were  attached  to  a  heavy  brass  arm  A .  This 
arm  moved  on  an  axis  which  was 
coincident  with  the  axis  of  the 
pendulums  and  could  be  clamped 
at  any  desired  position  on  a 
divided  arc  C.  This  provided 
for  considerable  latitude  of  ex- 
perimental variation  in  the  height 
of  fall  and  the  correlated  velocity 
of  the  hammer  at  the  moment  of 
stimulation.  Except  in  a  few 
specified  cases,  our  hammers  fell 
from  a  horizontal  to  a  vertical 
position,  making  h  in  the  energy 
equation  equal  to  the  length  of 
the  pendulum  from  its  axis  to 
the  center  of  gravity  of  the  bob 
(20  cm.  in  our  pendulums).  Thus, 
the  energy  of  the  pendulum  at 
the  moment  of  stimulation  varied 
directly  with  the  mass  and  was 
respectively 


20X30  e.g. 
20X50  e.g. 


20X75  e.g. 
20X100  e.g. 


Flu.  4. — Appurat 


for  stimulating  the  patrllnr 
reflex. 


Dodge1  suggested  as  an  indi- 
cator of  the  fatigability  of  a  re- 
flex, as  far  as  that  can  be  shown 
in  its  relative  refractory  phase, 
that  it  would  be  desirable  to  give  two  similar  stimuli  separated  by  a 
definite  interval  of  time  within  the  relative  refractory  period.  For 
that  purpose  our  pendulum  was  made  double,  with  similar  bobs,  and 
two  separate  release  magnets.  The  weight  of  the  two  bobs  was  deter- 
mined directly.  The  actual  lengths  of  the  two  pendulums  were  con- 
trolled by  comparing  their  periods  of  oscillation. 

To  secure  uniformity  of  application  of  the  two  successive  stimuli 
was  more  difficult.     A  light  wooden  rod  (/?',  fig.  4),  about  60  cm.  long, 


'Dodge,  Am.  Journ.  Psych.,  1913,  24,  p.  1. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS.  39 

was  mounted  at  one  end  on  a  vertical  axis,  so  that  it  could  move  freely 
in  a  horizontal  plane  at  about  the  height  of  the  subject's  patellar 
tendon.  The  free  end  of  this  rod  was  attached  by  a  flexible  cord  to  a 
point  concentric  with  the  axis  of  the  pendulums,  and  was  adjusted  to 
such  a  height  that  both  pendulums  struck  it  at  their  center  of  gravity 
when  they  reached  a  vertical  position.  The  height  of  the  whole 
system  could  be  changed  for  each  subject,  without  changing  any  of 
the  instrumental  constants,  by  raising  or  lowering  the  sliding  base  BB, 
so  that  the  rod  B'  rested  against  the  middle  of  that  particular  subject's 
patellar  tendon.  Once  adjusted,  the  base  was  securely  clamped  against 
the  vertical  frame,  and  the  rod  B'  was  given  an  even  tension  against 
the  tendon  by  the  pressure  of  an  elastic  band  which  was  stretched 
between  the  rod  and  a  fixed  point  on  the  upright  support.  When  once 
fixed  for  any  subject,  this  system  remained  unchanged  throughout  an 
afternoon's  experiments.  It  could  be  afterwards  reset  for  the  same 
subject  by  the  use  of  a  scale  which  was  attached  to  the  side  of  the 
frame.  But  for  obvious  reasons  the  scale  alone  was  never  depended 
upon.  On  each  day  the  position  of  the  system  was  carefully  verified 
for  each  subject. 

The  blows  of  the  pendulums  were  thus  transmitted  to  the  subject 
through  a  light  horizontal  lever  which  was  adjusted  as  above  indicated. 
This  secured  identity  of  the  point  of  application  of  the  two  blows. 
Since  a  lever  neither  increases  nor  decreases  energy,  the  effect  on  the 
tendon  must  be  practically  identical  for  both  pendulum  hammers, 
even  though  one  pendulum  strikes  the  horizontal  transmitting-rod 
somewhat  nearer  its  axis  than  the  other.  This  simple  theoretical 
relationship  is  somewhat  complicated  by  the  fact  that  in  practice  the 
lever  will  have  a  certain  amount  of  weight  and  elasticity.  To  reduce 
the  error  of  transmission  to  a  minimum,  our  transmitting  rod  is  as  long 
as  it  can  conveniently  be  (60  cm.),  while  the  two  percussion  hammer 
pendulums  strike  it  as  near  together  as  practicable  (25  mm.  apart). 
The  consequent  discrepancy  in  the  energy  of  the  successive  blows  is  a 
small  fraction  of  1  per  cent,  and  is  negligible  in  practice.  In  compara- 
tive measurements  this  discrepancy  can  play  no  role  at  all,  since  it  is 
an  instrumental  constant. 

Two  checks  on  the  constancy  of  the  stimulus  blows  are  included  in 
our  records.  (1)  If  the  blows  of  the  pendulums  are  exactly  equal, 
the  extent  of  the  mechanical  disturbance  to  the  muscle  incident  to 
stimulation  should  be  equal  after  each  blow.  To  be  sure,  this  can  not 
be  a  very  fine  measure  of  the  relative  energy  of  the  pendulums,  but  it 
served  to  disclose  any  accidental  differences  in  the  weights.  (2)  We 
took  what  is  probably  excessive  precaution  in  arbitrarily  omitting  the 
first  blow  at  least  once  in  every  series  of  experiments,  to  see  if  the  blow 
from  the  second  pendulum  produced  an  appropriate  reaction.  There 
were  no  measurable  discrepancies. 


40  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

RECORDING  DEVICE. 

On  grounds  which  are  already  indicated,  we  believe  that  adequate 
records  of  the  human  knee-jerk  must  be  either  direct  records  of  quad- 
riceps thickening  or  galvanometric  records  of  the  muscle-current  of 
action.  While  the  latter  are  probably  preferable  to  the  former,  and 
should  be  used  for  the  final  analysis  of  the  phenomenon,  they  are  much 
more  expensive  of  time  and  material,  and  are  practically  more  difficult 
to  manage.  In  the  present  investigation  the  records  were  produced 
by  direct  recording  levers  which  wrote  on  a  Blix-Sandstrom  kymograph 
the  reflex  thickening  of  isometric  quadriceps  muscle. 

The  adaptation  of  our  recording  levers  to  the  different  subjects 
proved  an  unexpected  source  of  difficulty.  It  was  proved  in  the  case 
of  Dodge  that  neither  the  size  of  the  lever  terminal  which  rested  on  the 
muscle  nor  the  pressure  which  it  exerted  on  the  muscle  at  the  point  of 
contact,  had  any  considerable  influence  on  the  latency  of  the  reflex. 
In  various  subjects,  however,  a  new  and  somewhat  serious  source  of 
error  was  discovered.  The  blow  of  the  hammer  upon  the  tendon 
always  sets  up  within  the  muscle  a  mechanical  wave-like  disturbance. 
We  depend  on  this  wave  to  record  the  moment  of  stimulation.  Under 
certain  combinations  of  stimulus  intensity  and  tonic  contraction  of  the 
muscle,  which  are  otherwise  undefinable,  this  mechanical  disturbance 
consisted  of  a  succession  of  damped  oscillations,  which  occasionally 
seriously  complicated  the  curve  and  rendered  the  true  beginning  of 
reaction  uncertain.  Two  devices  seemed  to  lessen  these  vibrations: 

(1)  The  area  of  contact  between  the  lever  system  and  the  muscle  should 
be  relatively  large.     In  all  except  the  earliest  experiments  we  used  a 
rectangular  base,  13  mm.  by  70  mm.,  placed  lengthwise  of  the  muscle. 

(2)  The  elastic  pressure  of  the  lever  system  against  the  muscle  should 
be  relatively  intense  as  well  as  quick  acting.    An  elastic  band  was  used 
for  this  purpose  which  exerted  a  pressure  of  about  500  gm.     Though 
this  varied  somewhat  from  individual  to  individual  because  of  the 
variations  in  diameter  of  the  respective  thighs,  it  remained  practically 
constant  for  each  individual  throughout  the  series.     Our  lever  system 
magnified  the  muscle  thickening  by  the  proportion  of  6  to  1.     This 
proportion  was  found  by  preliminary  experiment  to  be  the  most  favor- 
able with  our  particular  lever  arrangements. 

For  recording  the  knee-jerk  we  used  the  Blix-Sandstrom1  kymo- 
graph, which  was  run  at  a  peripheral  rate  of  100  mm.  per  second. 
While  this  form  of  kymograph  is  one  of  the  most  accurate  and  con- 
venient available,  it  may  not  be  used  without  constant  watchfulness 
and  occasional  readjustments  of  the  regulator.  Even  the  most  careful 
regulation  at  the  beginning  of  an  experimental  session  proved  to  be 
inadequate.  Except  in  the  earliest  experiments,  we  consequently  used 
a^control  time-record  throughout.  Unfortunately  for  psychological 

'Blix,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol..  1902,  90.  p.  405. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS.  41 

investigations,  the  Blix-Sandstrom  kymograph  has  one  rather  serious 
defect.  It  is  never  noiseless.  In  our  measurements  of  the  knee-jerk 
the  noise  itself  was  probably  negligible,  but  the  correlated  vibration 
tended  to  transmit  itself  through  the  table  to  the  axis  of  the  recording 
levers.  When  this  occurred  an  irregular  base-line  was  produced,  which 
more  or  less  obscured  the  moment  of  muscle  contraction.  These 
vibrations  of  the  lever  axis  may  be  largely  eliminated  by  suitable 
independent  supports.  Before  the  cure  was  found,  however,  these 
vibrations  ruined  a  number  of  early  knee-jerk  records. 

A  final  difficulty  which  appeared  as  the  experiments  progressed  was 
the  fact  that  the  knee-jerk  of  a  few  subjects  was  highly  refractory. 
In  all  our  subjects  a  knee-jerk  was  elicitable,  but  in  some  only  by 
reinforcements,  by  extra  heavy  hammers,  or  by  considerably  increased 
velocity  of  the  hammers.  Under  these  exceptional  circumstances,  the 
knee-jerk  measurements  were  omitted,  since  intense  stimulation  tended 
to  produce  not  merely  mechanical  disturbances  of  the  muscle,  but  also 
unpleasant  mental  correlates,  and  an  involuntary  tendency  to  stiffen 
the  leg-muscles  for  the  blows.  Any  one  of  these  factors  would  operate 
to  make  interpretation  of  the  records  questionable. 

EXPERIMENTAL  PROCEDURE. 

The  subject  was  seated  comfortably  in  a  slightly  reclining  chair  at 
the  edge  of  the  main  apparatus  table  (position  I,  fig.  1).  The  experi- 
menter moved  the  chair  so  that  the  subject's  left  leg  fitted  comfortably 
into  the  double  V  supports  (fig.  4) ;  and  the  whole  was  oriented  with 
respect  to  the  apparatus  table  so  that  the  middle  point  of  the  quad- 
riceps of  the  left  leg  was  directly  beneath  the  recording  lever.  Before 
the  first  records  of  a  day  were  taken,  the  height  of  the  pendulum- 
hammer  system  was  controlled  and  accurately  adjusted,  so  that  the 
blow  was  delivered  on  the  middle  of  the  patellar  tendon. 

The  recording-lever  was  then  adjusted  to  its  proper  position.  The 
muscle  end  of  the  lever  was  placed  in  position  and  secured  by  an  elastic 
band  which  was  passed  around  the  thigh  and  fastened  at  proper  tension. 
The  recording  end  of  the  lever  was  adjusted  so  that  it  was  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  drum  and  tangential  to  its  surface. 

The  kymograph  was  set  in  motion  and  allowed  four  revolutions  to 
gain  regular  speed.  (Measurements  showed  that  our  instrument  gains 
regular  speed  in  three  revolutions,  when  run  at  the  rate  of  100  mm.  per 
second.)  The  time-marker  was  set  hi  operation.  The  subject  was 
instructed  to  relax  completely,  but  to  say  "Ha"  each  tune  the  knee  was 
struck.  This  was  done  in  an  effort  to  control  both  the  attention  and 
the  respiration.  At  each  revolution  of  the  kymograph,  offsets  from  the 
shaft  broke  the  circuit  of  the  electromagnets  which  controlled  the 
hammers,  at  a  definite  point  of  each  revolution.  This  regulated  the 
interval  between  the  stimuli  and  determined  the  position  of  the  records 
on  the  smoked  paper.  To  insure  regularity  of  the  first  stimulation, 


42  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

the  contact-breaker  was  tested  by  one  free  revolution  of  the  drum,  but 
without  letting  the  hammers  fall.  When  all  these  details  were  in  order, 
the  operator  touched  the  key  to  the  mechanism  which  gave  the  rotating 
smoked  drum  a  gradual  lateral  displacement,  so  that  the  succession  of 
knee-jerk  records  appeared  as  one  continuous  line  whose  base  was  a 
spiral.  After  each  stimulus  the  operator  caught  the  hammer  on  its 
rebound  from  the  knee  and  raised  it  to  the  magnet.  If  more  than  one 
stimulus  weight  was  used,  the  record  regularly  began  with  the  lighter. 
The  pendulum  bobs  were  then  progressively  increased  in  weight  until 
a  vigorous  reflex  was  produced.  For  all  except  the  earliest  records, 
two  or  more  stimulus  weights  were  regularly  used  in  each  period. 
Unless  this  had  been  done,  it  would  frequently  have  occurred  that  the 
reflexes  at  some  period  of  the  experimental  session  would  have  had  no 
comparable  "  normal  of  the  day."  For  example,  it  frequently,  almost 
regularly,  happened  during  an  experimental  session  that,  after  an  hour 
or  two  of  relative  quiet,  the  knee-jerk  was  notably  decreased  in  extent. 
Occasionally  a  stimulus  that  at  first  produced  a  good  reflex  later 
produced  no  reflex  at  all.  If  that  stimulus  alone  had  been  used,  either 
the  later  experiments  would  be  meaningless,  or  the  stimulus  must  be 
changed  at  some  time  during  the  session,  with  consequent  incom- 
parability  of  earlier  and  later  results. 

In  the  record  shown  in  figure  5,  reading  the  upper  line  from  left  to 
right,  the  mechanical  shock  to  the  muscle,  which  is  produced  when  the 
pendulum  hammer  strikes  the  tendon,  is  recorded  by  the  first  slight  drop 
in  the  base-line.  In  reading  the  records  for  the  latent  time  of  the  reflex, 
this  point  is  taken  as  the  moment  of  stimulation.  Owing  to  the  delay 
which  is  occasioned  by  the  progression  of  this  mechanical  wave  along 
the  partially  elastic  muscle-tissue,  this  curve  does  not  represent  the 
exact  moment  when  the  pendulum  strikes  the  tendon.  As  measured 
by  Dodge1  in  his  own  case,  there  is  a  delay  between  the  two  events  of 
about  3<r.  While  it  does  not  represent  the  moment  when  the  tendon 
was  struck,  this  first  dip  of  the  line  does  represent  with  greatest  preci- 
sion the  much  more  significant  moment  when  the  particular  part  of  the 
muscle  suffered  deformation  as  a  result  of  the  blow.  And  since  the  real 
stimulus  of  the  muscle  receptors  is  due  to  the  sudden  muscle  deforma- 
tion, as  we  have  mentioned  before,  this  indicator  of  muscle  deformation 
shows  the  moment  of  actual  stimulation  of  the  corresponding  receptors 
more  accurately  than  as  though  we  recorded  the  moment  of  contact 
between  hammer  and  tendon. 

The  moment  of  reaction  is  indicated  by  the  main  drop  in  the  line. 
Here  again  we  are  not  recording  the  beginning  of  change  in  the  muscle 
as  a  whole,  but  rather  the  reflex  thickening  of  the  muscle  at  exactly 
the  point  where  we  have  previously  recorded  its  stimulation.  Records 
from  several  places  along  the  axis  of  the  muscle  show  a  measurable 

'Dodge.  Zeitschr.  f.  allg.  Phymol..  1910,  12,  p.  1. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS. 


43 


progression  of  the  thickening  wave.  With  our  recording  device,  how- 
ever, that  progression  is  entirely  irrelevant,  since  we  measure  from  the 
moment  of  stimulation  of  any  part  of  the  muscle  to  the  moment  of  the 
reflex  thickening  of  that  particular  part.  Since  both  events  are  re- 
corded by  the  same  writing  lever,  the  record  as  it  stands  is  an  exceed- 
ingly accurate  measurement  of  the  latency  of  the  particular  arc  which 
is  involved  in  the  reflex  action  of  that  part  of  the  muscle.  The  vertical 
displacement  of  the  recording  line  indicates  the  amount  of  the  reflex 


FIG.  5. — A  typical  record  of  the  patellar  reflex. 

muscle  thickening,  multiplied  by  the  leverage  of  the  recording-arm. 
We  believe  that  these  reflex  measurements  are  particularly  well  adapted 
to  indicate  the  relative  changes  induced  in  latency  and  amount  of  this 
reflex  arc  by  the  use  of  drugs. 

Each  line  represents  the  reflex  response  to  a  double  stimulation  of 
the  same  intensity.  The  interval  between  the  lines  is  one  complete 
revolution  of  the  drum.  Since  this  was  regulated  to  occur  in  5  seconds, 
the  series  of  records  follow  in  pairs  at  intervals  of  5  seconds.  Differ- 


44          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

ences  between  the  first  and  second  reflex  in  each  pair  of  records  indicate 
the  relative  amount  of  refractoriness  of  the  patellar  reflex  of  the  sub- 
ject at  that  particular  time  after  that  particular  interval. 

The  task  of  reading  the  records  is  rather  exacting,  though  relatively 
simple.  At  the  rate  for  which  the  kymograph  was  regulated,  each 
running  millimeter  of  the  record  is  equivalent  to  10<r  (0.01").  The 
records  were  read  with  a  lens  through  a  glass  plate  which  was  divided 
into  millimeter  cross-sections.  The  glass  coordinate  system  was  so 
placed  on  the  record  that  its  horizontal  ordinates  were  parallel  with  the 
base-lines  of  the  records.  It  was  then  carefully  moved  so  that  a  main 
ordinate  cut  the  record  line  at  the  first  indication  of  reflex  muscle 
thickening.  The  length  of  the  abscissa  from  the  ordinate  which  was 
placed  on  the  beginning  of  the  reflex  thickening  to  the  beginning  of  the 
stimulation  curve  can  be  read  on  the  millimeter  scale  directly  to  10  a 
(0.01 ")  and  estimated  with  reasonable  accuracy  to  \a  (0.001"). 

RESULTS. 
VARIABILITY  OF  THE  PATELLAR  REFLEX. 

In  all  the  studies  of  the  patellar  reflex  its  variability  has  been  one  of 
the  most  conspicuous  features  of  the  records.  Normal  individuals 
differ  widely  in  their  susceptibility  to  the  ordinary  stimuli.  Since 
the  patellar  reflex  is  not  essential  to  any  known  vital  process,  these 
individual  differences  are  not  surprising.  In  addition  to  the  variation 
between  individuals,  the  patellar  reflex  is  subject  to  more  or  less  gross 
variation  in  the  same  individual  at  different  times.  Even  with  string- 
galvanometer  technique,  Jolly1  found  the  latent  time  to  vary  in  one 
individual  so  that  the  highest  value  was  more  than  double  the  lowest 
(11.7(r  and  24.4 a  respectively).  When,  as  in  Jolly's  measurements, 
the  currents  of  action  are  used  as  indicators,  this  variation  must  be 
almost  entirely  central.  It  is  proportionately  more  prominent  as  one 
decreases  the  relative  importance  of  the  peripheral  factors.  For  the 
purposes  of  a  science  that  seeks  an  invariant,  these  central  variations 
seem  unfortunate.  On  the  contrary,  no  fact  may  properly  be  regarded 
as  unfortunate  in  science.  The  variability  of  the  knee-jerk  empha- 
sizes, in  the  case  of  the  simplest  possible  neural  arc,  the  contention 
which  appeared  in  our  introduction,  that  biological  invariants  do  not 
exist  except  as  statistical  artifacts. 

Simple  reflex  in  an  intact  vertebrate  is  after  all  a  relative  term. 
There  is  no  reflex  arc  so  simple  as  to  consist  of  an  isolated  chain  of 
neurons  from  receptors  to  muscle-fiber.  There  is  no  reflex  so  simple 
that  we  can  conceive  of  it  as  a  transmission  of  energy  from  receptor  to 
reactor  through  a  more  or  less  resistant  conductor.  At  no  step,  except, 
perhaps,  in  conduction  through  the  axones,  does  the  process  follow  a 
physical  model.  In  no  living  organism  can  we  ever  assume  that  an 

'Jolly.  Quart.  Journ.  exp.  Physiol.,  1911,  4,  p  67;  British  Med.  Journ.,  1910,  2,  p.  1259. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS.  45 

absolutely  inactive  tissue  is  aroused  to  action  by  our  stimulus.  Rather, 
we  must  think  of  the  living  central  nervous  system  as  in  a  continuous 
state  of  excitation.  In  the  waking  state,  at  least,  it  probably  originates 
a  continuous  succession  of  centrifugal  excitations,  so  that  each  "final 
common  path"  has  converging  upon  it  every  moment  a  complex  of 
stimulating  and  inhibiting  impulses  whose  algebraic  sum  at  any 
moment  of  time  conditions  the  state  of  the  "  final  common  path  "  at  that 
particular  moment.  A  stimulus  to  reflex  action  is  not  a  form  of  energy 
to  be  transmitted  to  muscle.  It  does  not  develop  activity  in  an  other- 
wise inert  system.  It  merely  modifies  the  balance  of  existing  tendencies. 
On  these  grounds  the  reflexes  may  not  be  expected  to  be  uniform. 

The  extreme  susceptibility  of  the  patellar  reflex  to  peripheral  re- 
inforcement was  shown  by  Jendrdssik1  in  the  familiar  Kunstgriff;  by 
Weir  Mitchell  and  Lewis2  in  simultaneous  stimulation  of  the  skin; 
by  Schreiber3  in  friction  of  the  skin;  by  Beevor4  in  cold-water  douches; 
by  Bowditch  and  Warren5  through  various  methods;  and  by  Stern- 
berg6  in  the  simple  handclap.  Similarly,  central  conditions  of  rein- 
forcement and  inhibition  are  in  constant  interplay.  It  is  surprising 
how  often  in  the  literature  of  the  patellar  reflex  one  finds  without  a 
sequel  the  "preliminary  announcement"  of  some  remarkable  correla- 
tion between  the  knee-jerk  changes  and  various  mental  processes,  like 
attention.  The  verification  of  these  supposed  correlations  seldom 
appears.  Only  in  spinal  preparation  are  successive  reflexes  relatively 
uniform.  Of  the  various  conditions  that  produce  this  lack  of  uniform- 
ity only  a  few  are  definitely  localizable  like  the  specific  action  of  curare, 
strychnine,  and  carbolic  acid.  In  general  we  know  that  reflex  excita- 
bility is  modified  by  the  degree  of  activity  of  the  higher  centers.  Antag- 
onistic and  facilitating  influences  may  also  arise  at  or  about  the  same 
spinal  level  as  the  reflex  itself.  Variations  in  pulse-rate  and  blood- 
pressure,  and  various  phases  of  respiratory  rhythm,  also  seem  to  modify 
the  reflexes. 

With  a  full  realization  of  all  these  sources  of  variation,  our  first  direct 
and  immediate  problem  is  to  discover  whether  the  irritability  of  this 
human  reflex  arc  is  increased  or  decreased  by  moderate  doses  of  alcohol. 
Assuming  that  all  these  sources  of  variation  and  many  others  may  be 
present  in  our  records  in  greater  or  less  degree,  it  was  a  technical 
problem  to  equalize  the  conditions  as  far  as  practicable.  The  problem 
of  interpreting  the  results  is  first  of  all  statistical.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  need  of  statistical  treatment  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possible  accidental 
variations  not  otherwise  shut  out  by  our  technique  is  just  as  great  in 
the  simple  as  in  the  more  complex  processes. 

^endrassik,  Neurolog.  Centralbl.,  1885,  4,  p.  412. 
2Mitchell  and  Lewis,  Med.  News,  1886,  Feb.  13,  p.  48. 
3Schreiber,  Deutsch.  Archiv  f.  klin.  Med.,  1884,  35,  p.  254. 
4Beevor,  Brain,  1883,  5,  p.  56. 

"Bowditch  and  Warren,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1890,  11,  p.  25. 
•Sternberg,  Die  Sehnenreflexe,  Leipsic,  1893,  p.  177. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL    EFFECTS   OF    ALCOHOL. 


NORMAL  VARIATIONS  IN  THE  CASE  OF  SUBJECT  II. 

An  instance  where  the  difficulties  of  an  adequate  interpretation  of 
the  data  appear  in  extreme  form  is  the  case  of  Subject  II.  Table  1 
gives  the  data  for  2  days'  knee-jerk  experiments  on  Subject  II. 

TABLE  l.—Patellar  reflex.    Subject  II. 
[R'  and  R"  are  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.) 


Normal.1 

Alcohol  (dose  A). 

Date  and  time. 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

Date  and  time. 

R' 

H' 

H" 

H" 

Oct.  8,  1913. 

Sept.  23,  1913. 

50  gm.  hammer: 

a 

mm. 

<r 

mm. 

'M  gm.  hammer: 

or 

mm. 

9 

mm. 

7h45mp.  m  

61 

2.4 

50 

2.2 

8h18mp.  m.»  

35 

tl.4 

4* 

7 

8  06    p.  m  

51 

2.0 

50 

1.6 

Alcohol  given. 

8  46    p.  m  

51 

2.4 

48 

3.0 

gh  4Qm  p    m  

36 

9.0 

42 

5.6 

9    10    p.  m  

46 

5.0 

43 

6.0 

8   50    p.  m  :J7 

8.0 

44 

2.0 

9   50    p.  m  

50 

5.2 

51 

2.8 

9   03    p.  m  1  

3.0 

0.0 

50  urn.  hammer: 

9h  05m  p.  m  40 

13.7 

41 

4.0 

9   20    p.  m  

43 

10.3 

48 

5.3 

9   34    p.  m  

42 

5.0 

0.0 

9  50    p.  m  

3.0 

0.0 

10  02    p.  m  

44 

7.0 

48 

3.4 

10   12    p.  m  

47 

7.0 

48 

6.1 

10   20    p.  m  

46 

7.2 

47 

5.8 

10  30    p.  m  

44 

8.3 

46 

4.4 

•Subject  had  been  "all  day  at  the  microscope." 

'Normal  period  preceding  the  taking  of  alcohol.  In  this  and  all  subsequent  tables,  the  data  for 
the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  will  be  printed  in  italics  to  indicate  that  they  were 
obtained  before  the  alcohol  was  given. 

On  September  23,  30  c.c.  of  absolute  alcohol  were  given  in  a  total 
volume  of  150  c.c.  directly  after  8h  20m  p.m.  October  8  was  a  normal 
day  without  alcohol.  The  time  of  day  at  which  the  series  were  given 
is  shown  in  the  first  column.  Columns  R'  and  R"  give  the  latency  of 
the  first  and  second  responses,  respectively,  in  thousandths  of  a  second. 
Columns  H'  and  H"  show  the  amount  of  muscle  thickening  in  milli- 
meters as  recorded  by  a  marker  with  a  magnifying  leverage  of  6 : 1 . 

The  most  conspicuous  fact  is  that  the  two  days,  September  23  and 
October  8,  started  at  widely  different  levels  of  reflex  excitability.  In 
the  first  period  on  September  23,  a  30  gm.  hammer  falling  20  cm.  pro- 

21  4 
duced  an  average  muscle-thickening  of  — ~  mm.     This  was  about 

four-tenths  of  the  maximum  voluntary  isometric  contraction  of  Subject 
II.  In  the  first  period,  on  October  8,  a  50  gm.  hammer  falling  through 
the  same  distance  produced  a  contraction  thickening  of  only  one-ninth 
of  the  previous  amount.  The  latency  in  the  two  cases  was  35  a  and 
51  a-  respectively.  The  regularity  of  the  succeeding  periods  shows  that 
these  values  are  not  accidents.  The  notes  on  the  two  days  show  only 


SIMPLEST    NEURAL    ARCS.  47 

one  apparently  relevant  difference.  On  October  8,  Subject  II  remarked 
that  he  had  "  spent  all  day  at  the  microscope  and  was  tired." 

A  second  obvious  difference  in  the  two  days  is  shown  in  the  course 
of  succeeding  periods.  On  the  normal  day,  succeeding  periods  after 
the  " normal  of  the  day"  show  a  tendency  toward  increase  in  the  height 
of  contraction  and  a  reduction  of  its  latency.  On  the  alcohol  day,  on 
the  contrary,  succeeding  periods  after  the  "normal  of  the  day"  show 
a  gradual  increase  of  latency  and  a  rapid  fall  in  the  height  of  contrac- 
tion. This  change  begins  within  20  minutes  after  the  ingestion  of 
alcohol  and  lasts  about  90  minutes.  At  9h  3m,  the  effect  of  the  30  gm. 
hammer  had  almost  disappeared.  The  substitution  of  a  50  gm. 
hammer  showed  a  continual  fall  of  height  up  to  about  90  minutes  after 
the  ingestion  of  alcohol  and  a  slight  subsequent  recovery.  If  the  data 
of  September  23  stood  alone,  one  could  interpret  them  only  as  an 
evidence  of  the  depressing  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  knee-jerk.  Taken 
in  connection  with  the  normal  record  of  October  8,  the  question  arises 
whether  the  changes  on  September  23  are  not  really  due  to  an  acci- 
dental initial  extreme  excitability  and  whether  the  opposite  tendency 
on  the  normal  day  is  not  due  to  an  initial  abnormal  subexcitability. 
Subsequent  records  imply  that  both  of  these  hypotheses  are  partially 
true. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  least  valid  measure  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on 
the  patellar  reflex  of  Subject  II  would  be  the  difference  in  the  average 
values  of  the  two  days.  That  would  be  significant  only  if  they  started 
at  the  same  level.  The  most  significant  data  are  given  by  the  course 
of  the  process  in  succeeding  periods  after  the  respective  normals  of  the 
day,  with  alcohol  and  without.  If  the  average  of  all  our  cases  shows  a 
predominant  change  in  the  relation  of  subsequent  measurements  to 
the  normals  of  the  day  on  alcohol  days,  the  direction  of  that  change 
must  be  taken  as  the  direction  of  the  probable  effect  of  alcohol.  But 
only  if  related  processes  show  similar  tendencies  can  we  regard  this 
evidence  as  conclusive. 

All  our  knee-jerk  data  are  exhibited  on  this  plan  in  table  2.  Each 
value  entered  under  the  appropriate  column  shows  the  algebraic  dif- 
ference between  the  measurements  of  the  first  period,  or  "normal  of 
the  day"  and  each  of  the  succeeding  periods  of  the  day.  For  example, 
4-5  entered  opposite  1—4,  under  Subject  II,  October  8,  R',  shows  that 
on  that  date  the  latency  of  the  knee-jerk  was  0.005"  less  in  the  fourth 
series  than  in  the  first  of  the  same  day. 

In  the  measurements  of  the  patellar  reflex,  it  proved  impracticable 
to  follow  the  usual  plan  of  securing  complete  sets  of  comparable  data 
after  both  doses  of  alcohol.  The  extent  of  the  muscle  contraction  was 
reduced  enormously  even  by  the  30  c.c.  dose.  In  many  cases  the 
curves  were  so  low  that  the  latency  could  not  be  satisfactorily  measured 
when  the  action  of  the  alcohol  was  at  its  maximum.  In  most  cases 


48  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

the  same  stimulus  that  produced  a  good  reflex  on  a  normal  day  pro- 
duced no  reflex  at  all  after  the  larger  dose  of  alcohol  (45  c.c.) .  To  have 
increased  the  weight  of  the  stimulus  hammer  in  such  cases  until  a  reflex 
was  produced  would  have  resulted  in  serious  complication  of  the  data, 
and  would  not  have  added  to  our  comparable  facts.  To  have  foreseen 
the  results  was  of  course  impossible.  But  even  if  the  results  had  been 
foreseen,  there  are  grave  objections  to  using  excessive  stimuli  on  normal 
days.  These  objections  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  (1)  excessive 
blows  and  excessive  contraction  of  the  big  quadriceps  muscle  tend  to 
produce  prestimulation  and  preparatory  stiffening  of  the  whole  body, 
with  consequent  inhibition  of  the  reflex;  (2)  excessive  isometric  con- 
traction stretches  the  muscle  mechanically  at  each  contraction  and 
notably  changes  the  muscle  tonus;  (3)  if  the  leg  is  held  so  that  it  can 
not  move,  it  is  hurt  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  supports  by  exces- 
sive contraction  of  the  muscle;  (4)  excessive  contraction  of  the  quad- 
riceps moves  the  body  of  the  subject  more  or  less  out  of  alignment  with 
the  apparatus.  In  the  few  cases  where  reliable  data  were  obtained 
after  the  larger  dose  of  alcohol,  the  results  are  entered  in  the  table  with 
appropriate  designation. 

Table  2  shows  the  results  of  the  patellar  reflex  measurements  for 
each  subject,  in  D  values  (D  equals  the  deviation  of  the  measurements 
of  the  subsequent  periods  from  the  first  period,  or  "normal  of  the  day") . 
The  table  is  so  arranged  that  all  the  data  for  each  subject  are  grouped 
together.  Normal  days  are  given  on  the  left  and  alcohol  days  on  the 
right.  Under  R'  and  R"  are  entered  data  from  the  latent  time  of  the 
reflex  after  the  first  and  second  stimulation  respectively.  Similarly, 
under  H'  and  H"  are  entered  the  data  referring  to  the  extent  of  con- 
traction in  millimeters  of  muscle  thickening  multiplied  by  the  leverage 
of  the  recording-lever,  in  the  first  and  second  reflexes  respectively. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS. 


49 


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PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


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SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS. 


53 


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54 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PATELLAR  REFLEX. 

The  results  of  the  patellar  reflex  measurements,  as  far  as  the  effects 
of  alcohol  are  concerned,  are  grouped  together  in  the  summary,  table  3. 
In  this  table  the  effect  of  alcohol  is  shown  in  two  ways:  (1)  at  the  left, 
in  terms  of  time  and  space  units,  and  (2)  at  the  right,  in  percentiles. 
These  various  values  are  calculated  according  to  the  formulae  that  are 
given  in  the  discussion  of  the  statistical  method.  (See  p.  29.) 

TABLE  3. — Summary  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  patettar  reflex. 
[R'  and  R"  are  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject. 

Dose. 

Effect  as  shown  by  average 
differences.1 

Effect  as  shown  by  percentile 
differences.1 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

Normal  subjects: 
II  
Ill  
IV  

VI  

VII  
IX4  

Average 

A 
A 
A 
B 
A 
B 
A 
A 
B 

a 
-8.5 
(') 
« 
-3.8 
-0.1 
+2.3 
-3.0 
-5.7 
-7.0 
-3.7 

+2.8 
+0.9 
+1.8 

-1.8 
+2.3 
-0.5 
0.0 

mm. 
+  19.7 
+  6.0 
-   1.7 
+  6.2 
-  3.7 
-  7.5 
+  8.8 
+  2.2 
+  6.8 
+  4.1 

+  4.1 
+  3.9 
+  4.0 

+  3.0 
+  2.6 
+  0.2 
+  1.9 

a 
-5.5 

(3) 
(') 

-2.2 
(3) 
(3) 
+0.9 
-0.7 
-0.7 
-1.6 

O 
+0.1 

+2.3 
+4.3 
-3.6 
+1.0 

mm. 
+  7.0 
+  3.1 
+  4.2 
+  2.7 
-  8.5 
-  7.1 
+  5.6 
+  3.0 
+  12.9 
+  2.5 

+  1.7 
-  0.9 
+  0.4 

-  0.2 
-  0.4 
+  0.5 
0.0 

p.ct. 
-19.7 
(3) 
(3) 
-  9.0 
-  0.3 
+  6.4 
-  7.3 
-17.0 
-20.0 
-  9.6 

+  6.8 
+  2.8 
+  4.8 

-  4.6 
+  6.6 
-  1.2 
+  0.3 

p.ct. 
+165 
+105 
-   19 
+  68 
-   13 
-  37 
+110 
+  14 
+  47 
+  48.9 

+  29 
+  26 
+  27 

+  31 
+  36 
+     2 
+  23 

p.ct. 
-12.0 
O 
(') 
-  5.1 
(') 
(') 
+  2.1 
-  2.2 
-  2.2 
-  3.9 

(') 
+  0.3 

+  6.6 
+11.9 
-  8.0 
+  3.2 

p.ct. 
+152 
+  91 
+  45 
+  33 
-173 
-160 
+  92 
+  19 
+  97 
+  21.8 

+  57 
-  10 
+  23 

-     4 
-    11 
+  14 
-    0.3 

12  hr.  experiments: 
VI 

C 
C 

A 
A 
A 

IX 

Average  
Psychopathic    sub- 
jects: 
XI  
XII  
XIV  
Average.  .... 

'Effect  on  the  average  difference  equals  (Av.  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc.,  alcohol)  minus  (Av.  1-2,  1-3, 
1-4,  etc.,  normal). 

*Effect  on  the  percentile  difference  equals  average  difference  divided  by  average  of  the  cor- 
responding first  periods. 

'Illegible. 

'Subject  VIII  is  not  included  in  this  summary,  since  he  was  unable  to  complete  the  series  and 
his  inclusion  would  make  it  impossible  to  compare  this  with  later  tables.  His  results  are  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  average  of  the  group,  but  greater  in  degree. 

At  the  extreme  left  of  table  3  appear  the  numbers  of  the  subjects. 
In  the  next  column  the  alcohol  dosage  is  indicated.  Under  R'  and  H' 
appear  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  latency  and  extent  of  the  first  reflex. 
Similarly,  under  R"  and  H"  appear  the  effect  on  the  latency  and  the 
extent  of  the  second  reflex. 

(1)  From  the  upper  part  of  table  3  (normal  subjects),  it  appears  that 
alcohol  regularly  tends  to  depress  the  patellar  reflex,  that  is,  it  lengthens 
the  latent  time  of  the  reflex  in  five  out  of  six  of  the  main  group  of  sub- 
jects by  an  average  of  9.6  per  cent,  and  it  decreases  the  height  of  the 
contraction  by  an  average  of  48.9  per  cent. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS.  55 

(2)  Since  the  second  reflex  (R"  and  H")  is  affected  by  alcohol  like 
the  first,  though  in  less  degree,  one  may  say  that  these  experiments 
show  less  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  second  reflex  within  the  refractory 
phase  of  the  knee-jerk  than  on  the  initial  response.     But,  since  the 
second  stimulus  was  regularly  given  during  the  relatively  refractory 
phase  of  the  first,  the  response  is  often  too  slight  to  permit  an  accurate 
measurement  of  R".     Consequently,  the  instances  in  which  a  latent 
time  was  measurable  in  response  to  the  second  stimulus  are  substan- 
tially fewer  than  in  the  case  of  the  first.     On  this  account  the  relation- 
ship between  the  percentile  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  latent  time  in  the 
two  cases  must  be  regarded  as  partly  accidental.     That  it  represents 
a  real  tendency,  however,  appears  from  the  similar  relationship  of  the 
percentile  changes  in  extent. 

(3)  Individual  variations  from  the  average  are  conspicuous.     Their 
discussion  will  be  more  in  place  in  the  final  chapter  in  connection  with 
other  measurements.     The  chief  exception  in  the  main  group  is  Sub- 
ject VI,  who  not  uncommonly  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  group  in  the 
other  measurements,  as  well  as  in  these.1 

(4)  The  psychopathic  subjects,  table  3,  at  the  bottom,  show  consid- 
erable variation  among  themselves,  and  between  themselves  and  the 
main  group.     While  the  number  of  subjects  in  this  class  is  too  few  to 
treat  statistically  as  a  class,  it  is  conspicuous  that  they  all  agree  in  the 
effect  of  alcohol  on  the  amount  of  reflex  contraction  (H'),  and  that 
this  agrees  in  direction  with  that  of  the  main  group.     The  effect  on  the 
reflex  latency  and  on  the  refractory  phase  H"  is  highly  irregular.     We 
have  no  basis  for  their  interpretation. 

(5)  In  the  12-hour  experiment,  H'  is  affected  as  after  a  single  dose. 
It  is  apparent  that  in  this  case  Subject  VI  follows  the  rule  of  the 
main  group  rather  than  his  own  precedents  after  a  single  dose.     It  is 
worthy   of  note,   moreover,  that  the  much  larger  total  amount  of 
alcohol  given  in  smaller  doses  over  a  long  period  affects  the  latency  of 
the  reflex  less  than  a  single  dose  of  30  to  45  c.c. 

1This  tendency  of  Subject  VI  to  differ  from  the  group  was  a  troublesome  matter  to  handle.  It 
was  possible  that  he  actually  presented  a  physiological  exception  to  the  average  effects  of  alcohol 
as  represented  by  the  rest  of  the  group.  As  far  as  our  controls  went,  however,  it  was  not  impos- 
sible that  he  was  taking  food  or  drugs  that  masked  the  effect  of  the  alcohol.  It  was  further 
possible  that  his  was  one  of  the  cases  of  chance  variation.  In  any  event,  it  appeared  advisable 
to  repeat  the  experiments  on  him  after  his  work  in  the  medical  school  had  closed  in  June.  To 
this  end  he  served  as  a  subject  a  full  week  of  6  days,  5  hours  per  day.  On  3  of  these  days  alcohol 
was  given  with  Rivers's  solution  and  quassia.  On  the  3  normal  or  non-alcohol  days,  the  same 
quantity  of  the  control  mixture  was  given  (Rivers's  solution  and  quassia  without  alcohol). 
Though  he  never  failed  to  know  when  alcohol  was  present,  he  had  no  way  of  knowing  beforehand 
whether  alcohol  would  be  given  or  not.  This  series  was  given  and  elaborated  by  Professor  W.  R. 
Miles,  of  this  Laboratory,  without  consulting  the  previous  records.  The  results  will  be  published 
separately. 

These  sessions  were  given  under  the  best  practical  controls.  Being  given  after  the  close  of  the 
regular  term's  work,  the  subject  was  relatively  free  from  the  pressure  of  outside  engagements. 
He  agreed  to  maintain  the  utmost  regularity  with  respect  to  food  and  daily  routine.  The  resulting 
data  are  the  most  complete  secured  from  any  of  the  subjects.  They  clearly  show  that  VI  is  not 
a  true  physiological  exception  to  the  group  of  normal  subjects. 


56  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

(6)  The  data  as  a  whole  unequivocally  indicate  that  moderate  doses 
of  alcohol  tend  to  produce  a  marked  depression  of  the  patellar  reflex,  as 
is  shown  in  a  decreased  response  or  a  lengthened  latency,  or  both. 
The  refractory  phase  of  the  patellar  reflex  is  not  measurably  affected 
by  the  30  c.c.  dose  in  any  regular  way. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PROTECTIVE  LID-REFLEX. 

The  second  of  the  simple  reflexes  which  the  psychological  program 
suggested  for  immediate  study  hi  connection  with  the  ingestion  of 
alcohol  was  the  protective  lid-reflex.  It  seemed  to  satisfy  all  our 
requirements  both  in  respect  to  the  accuracy  of  technique  and  in 
respect  to  the  completeness  with  which  it  fitted  into  the  scheme  of 
related  neuro-muscular  processes.  Its  latent  time  is  of  the  same  order 
as  that  of  the  patellar  reflex,  i.  e.,300-  to  40<r.  Since  it  is  a  cephalic 
reflex,  experimental  data  should  be  significant  for  the  effect  of  alcohol 
on  a  very  different  part  of  the  neuro-muscular  organism  from  that 
which  governs  the  patellar  reflex.  Furthermore,  it  satisfied  our 
requirements  with  respect  to  freedom  from  voluntary  control  and 
arbitrary  interference  with  the  results.  The  characteristic  reflex  lid- 
movement  can  neither  be  simulated  nor  voluntarily  inhibited.  Like 
the  patellar  reflex,  the  protective  lid-reflex  is  subject  to  considerable 
individual  variation,  but  its  normal  variation  in  the  same  individual  is 
much  less. 

TECHNIQUE. 

The  latent  time  and  duration  of  the  several  phases  of  the  wink  have 
been  investigated  by  a  number  of  physiologists  with  a  variety  of  tech- 
niques. The  first  measurements  of  the  latent  time  of  the  wink  reflex 
were  made  by  Exner.1  Subsequent  measurements  were  made  by 
Franck,2  Mayhew,3  and  Garten.4  Garten's  beautiful  photographic 
technique  gave  the  first  accurate  curves  of  the  course  of  the  lid  con- 
traction. The  more  recent  kinematographic  records  of  0.  Weiss5  refer 
only  to  the  voluntary  wink  and  not  to  the  protective  reflex.  Both 
Garten  and  Weiss  used  the  general  principle  of  serial,  intermittent 
photographic  records.  To  give  comparable  values  for  the  short  latent 
time  of  the  reflex  wink  (30  to  40  a) ,  such  records  should  have  a  frequency 
of  from  500  to  1,000  per  second.  The  obvious  difficulties  in  inter- 
mittent records  of  this  frequency,  while  they  are  not  prohibitive,  em- 
phasize the  relative  simplicity  of  a  photographic  method  which  gives 
continuous  records  of  the  shadows  of  the  eyelashes  on  a  moving  photo- 

1  Exner.  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1874,  8.  p.  526. 

'Franck,   Ueber  die  zeitlichen   VerhiUtnis.se    des  ref.   u.    willk.   Lidschiusses.       Dissertation, 
K6nigsberg,  1889. 

'Mayhew.  Journ.  exp.  Med.,  1897,  2,  p.  35. 
KJarten.  Archiv  f.  d.  gea.  Physiol.,  1898.  71.  p.  477. 
•Weiss.  Zeitschr.  f.  Sinnesphysiol.,  1911,  45,  p.  307. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   AECS.  57 

graphic  plate.  We  believe  that  this  is  not  only  the  simplest  but  the 
most  accurate  available  technique  for  time  measurements  of  the  pro- 
tective lid-reflex. 

Our  technique  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  which  was  described 
by  Dodge.1  Its  instrumental  requirements  are  a  photographic  record- 
ing camera,  and  a  device  for  producing  a  sudden  loud  noise.  Across  the 
slit  of  the  photographic  recording  camera  are  thrown  two  shadows. 
One  is  the  shadow  of  a  projection  from  the  sounding-board  of  the  noise- 
producer,  the  other  is  the  shadow  of  a  real  or  of  an  artificial  eyelash. 
Movement  of  the  first  shadow  shows  the  moment  of  stimulation.  Move- 
ment of  the  second  shadow  shows  the  moment  of  reflex  response.  A 
suitable  timing  device  permits  direct  reading  of  the  latency  and  extent 
of  lid-movement. 

STIMULUS. 

Various  forms  of  stimuli  are  usable  to  elicit  the  protective  wink- 
reflex.  Zwaardemaker  and  Lans,2  experimenting  with  both  rabbit 
and  human  subjects,  used  two  forms  of  stimuli — flashes  of  light  and 
puffs  of  air  blown  against  the  cornea.  With  a  frog  as  a  subject,  Dodge 
used  a  weak  Faradic  stimulation  of  the  cornea.  A  blow  on  the  face 
or  a  sudden  noise  will  also  produce  a  wink-reflex.  Both  flashes  of  light 
and  puffs  of  air  are  unsatisfactory  stimuli  for  studying  the  refractory 
phase  of  the  reflex,  since  in  both  cases  the  wink  modifies  the  receptors 
and  mechanically  decreases  their  accessibility  to  a  subsequent  stimulus 
for  an  appreciable  interval  of  time.  Moreover,  the  wink  itself  pro- 
duces a  sudden  change  in  the  illumination  of  the  retina  and  a  slight 
stimulation  of  the  cornea.  Both  the  flash  of  light  and  the  puff  of  air 
become  decidedly  annoying  in  any  considerable  number  of  repetitions, 
the  former  by  its  effect  upon  the  muscles  of  the  iris,  the  latter  as  it  dries 
the  cornea.  Electrical  stimulation  of  the  cornea  ought  to  be  especially 
useful.  We  have  not  attempted  to  use  it  in  humans,  because  of  the 
lack  of  suitable  electrodes  on  the  one  hand  and  the  possibility  that 
electric  stimulation  of  neighboring  tissue  might  also  directly  stimulate 
the  lid-muscles.  Dermal  stimuli,  like  a  blow  on  the  cheek,  were  found 
in  preliminary  trial  to  have  a  relatively  long  after-effect. 

On  a  variety  of  grounds  we  chose  the  noise  stimulus.  But  even  this 
is  not  without  its  possible  difficulties.  For  example:  (1)  it  would  be 
useless  in  cases  of  deaf  subjects;  (2)  subjects  trained  by  participation 
in  athletic  sports  or  by  other  means  to  keep  their  eyes  open  would  be 
in  a  class  by  themselves.  With  the  deaf  we  have  had  no  experience. 
The  class  would  probably  not  be  larger  than  that  of  visual  defectives. 
Of  those  especially  trained  not  to  respond,  Dodge  investigated  and 

'Dodge,  Zeitschr.  f.  allg.  Physiol.,  1910,  12,  p.  1;  Dodge,  Am.  Journ.  Psych.,  191.3,  24,  p.  1. 
2Zwaardemaker  and  Lans,  Zentrlbl.  f.  Physiol.,  1899,  13,  p.  325. 


58  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

reported  one  case.1  Two  of  our  present  subjects  belong  to  this  class. 
While  their  personal  peculiarities  disturb  the  general  average  of  the 
group,  the  contribution  of  their  data  to  the  general  theory  is  of  par- 
ticular value.  In  any  event,  the  disadvantages  of  using  a  sound 
stimulus  are  not  greater  than  those  of  other  stimuli.  The  advantages 
of  a  sound  stimulus  are  three:  (1)  it  permits  direct  recording  in  the 
same  shadow  complex  that  includes  the  eyelashes;  (2)  successive  stimuli 
are  apprehended  as  discrete,  well  within  the  limits  of  the  complete 
refractory  phase,  and  (3)  the  mechanism  of  reaction  in  no  wise  modi- 
fies the  receptor. 

In  the  noise-stimulus  apparatus  (fig.  6)  the  two  steel-wire  loops 
L'L"  serve  as  percussion  hammers  to  produce  the  noise.  Before  the 
stimulation  they  are  held  horizontal  by  the  electromagnets  M'M". 
A  break  in  the  circuit  of  either  one  of  these  magnets  frees  the  wire- 
loop  hammer,  which  is  hurled  against  the  sounding-board  S  B  by  the 
adjustable  spring  S'S".  The  sharp  clap  of  contact  was  an  adequate 
wink  stimulus  for  all  but  one  of  our  subjects. 

Some  minor  points  in  this  stimulus  device,  the  product  of  our  experi- 
ence, may  be  worth  mentioning.  (1)  Wire  hammers  are  better  than 
solid  hammers.  Though  the  latter  would  have  greater  weight,  the 
former  can  be  given  greater  velocity.  This  increased  velocity  is  desir- 
able, since  it  lessens  the  time  interval  between  the  release  of  the  hammer 
and  the  moment  of  stimulation,  and  so  offers  less  chance  for  disturbing 
secondary  cues  before  the  real  stimulus.  For  a  similar  reason  the 
hammers  move  through  90°  instead  of  180°,  as  in  our  first  instrument. 
(2)  To  reduce  the  consumption  of  electric  current  and  consequent 
wear  on  contacts,  the  hammers  are  not  held  directly  by  the  magnets, 
but  by  wire  triggers.  (3)  The  leverage  of  the  trigger  for  the  second 
hammer  must  be  considerably  greater  than  for  the  first,  otherwise  the 
second  hammer  would  be  released  by  the  vibrations  of  the  first  impact. 

EYELASH. 

Since  the  eyelashes  of  different  subjects  are  very  often  different  in 
length  and  thickness,  it  became  necessary  to  standardize  them  by 
using  artificial  lashes.  These  were  cut  from  black  paper,  and  measured 
1  mm.  by  15  mm.  A  short  arm  1.5  mm.  long,  bent  at  right  angles  to 
the  main  piece,  gave  a  satisfactory  base  for  attachment  to  the  eyelid. 
Very  heavy  gum  arabic  solution  proved  a  satisfactory  adhesive  medium. 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  RECORDING  CAMERA. 

For  photographically  recording  the  shadows  of  the  eyelash  and  noise 
stimulus  almost  any  horizontal  photographic  device  would  serve.  For 
compactness  and  convenience  of  operation,  the  instrument  that  we  used 
leaves  little  to  be  desired.  Unfortunately  it  is  not  entirely  noiseless. 

•Dodge,  Zeitschr.  f.  allg.  Physiol.,  1910.  12,  p.  1. 


SIMPLEST    NEURAL   ARCS. 


59 


It  is  a  horizontal  form  of  the  Dodge-Cline1  recording  camera.  Within 
a  horizontal  wooden  box  (fig.  6,  camera  (7)  is  a  frame  which  is  fitted  to 
carry  commercial  5  by  7  inch  photographic-plate  holders.  This  frame 
slides  horizontally  in  grooves  of  heavy  brass  supports.  The  lateral 
movement  of  the  frame  and  plate-holder  is  produced  by  the  lead  weight 
W  working  against  an  oil  resistance  OC  outside  the  box.  In  this  case, 
however,  it  operates  in  the  reverse  direction  to  that  in  which  it  was 
originally  used.  Piston  P  works  in  an  oil-filled  cylinder  OC.  While 
the  pull  of  the  weight  W  exerts  a  constant  pressure  to  raise  the  piston 
in  the  cylinder,  actual  movement  is  impossible  unless  oil  is  admitted 
behind  the  piston  through  a  valve  F,  which  is  just  visible  in  the  figure. 
The  oil  which  is  fed  in  at  the  bottom  is  taken  from  the  top  of  the 
cylinder  through  a  by-pass  which  is  not  visible  in  figure  6.  The  valve 


OC 


FIG.  6. — The  noise-stimulus  apparatus  for  the  lid-reflex  in  position  before  the 
photographic  recording  camera. 

V  is  fitted  with  a  long  handle,  which  is  released  by  a  trigger  when  the 
experiment  is  about  to  begin.  A  spring  operates  on  the  release  of  the 
arm  to  move  it  as  far  as  an  adjustable  stop.  In  this  way  the  valve  is 
opened  the  same  amount  in  successive  experiments.  The  degree  to 
which  it  is  opened  controls  the  inflow  of  oil  and  the  consequent  velocity 
of  the  plate-holder. 

A  suitable  cylindrical  lens  behind  the  slit  of  the  camera  focuses  the 
light  rays  to  a  line  on  the  photographic  plate  in  the  usual  way.  A 
grating  of  fine  silk  threads,  2  mm.  apart,  is  also  placed  behind  the  slit. 


^odge  and  Cline,  Psychol.  Review,  1901,  8,  p.  145. 


60  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

Since  these  silk  threads  are  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  cylindrical 
lens,  their  shadows  appear  on  the  photographic  records  as  parallels  to 
the  base-line  of  the  record.  Interruptions  of  the  beam  of  light  at  its 
source  by  a  vibrator  (figs.  7  and  8),  in  series  with  an  electrically  driven 
tuning-fork  of  50  double  vibrations,  appear  on  the  records  as  time- 
ordinates  0.01"  apart. 

Figures  7  and  8  give  photographic  reproductions  of  the  light  inter- 
rupter at  rest  and  in  vibration.  The  simultaneously  photographed 
millimeter  scale  on  the  right  of  the  cuts  is  in  the  plane  of  the  marker 
and  gives  its  dimensions  directly. 

The  interrupter  is  so  constructed  that  the  vibrating  reed  can  be 
shortened  or  lengthened  until  its  natural  period  is  identical  with  the 
period  of  the  instigating  fork.  This  insures  a  maximum  amplitude  of 
oscillation  with  a  minimum  of  electric  current.  The  amplitude  of 
oscillation  should  be  as  large  as  is  practicable,  so  that  the  width  of  the 
corresponding  time-ordinate  shadow  may  be  minimal. 

The  operation  of  a  light-interruptor  as  a  time-marker  for  photo- 
graphic records  is  doubtless  too  familiar  to  need  extended  description. 
Briefly  it  is  as  follows :  If  the  recording  beam  of  light  is  momentarily 
interrupted  at  its  source,  a  shadow  line  is  made  across  the  record,  giving 
the  alignment  of  all  phases  of  the  record  at  that  moment.  With  a 
tuning-fork  driven  vibrator  as  interrupter,  the  consequent  succession 
of  alignment  shadows  becomes  a  true  time-record.  Each  time  ordinate 
in  our  records  represents  0.01  second. 

EXPERIMENTAL  PROCEDURE. 

Lid-reflex  measurements  were  usually  taken  immediately  after  the 
eye-movement  records.  The  subject  remained  in  the  same  position 
against  the  head-rest  as  for  the  eye-movement  records  (position  2,  fig.  1). 
The  following  changes  were  made  by  the  experimenter  on  the  apparatus 
table  and  in  the  lighting  system:  (1)  a  screen,  which  covered  the  left 
eye  during  the  eye-movement  measurements  to  prevent  binocular 
complications  of  the  eye-movements,  was  withdrawn  so  that  the 
shadow  of  the  left  eyelash  could  fall  across  the  slit  of  the  recording 
camera;  (2)  the  mirror  (AT,  fig.  1)  was  rotated  so  that  the  beam  of 
recording  light  was  deflected  to  the  recording  camera;  (3)  the  objective 
of  the  projection  lantern  was  moved  in  so  that  the  recording  rays  were 
highly  dispersed;  (4)  the  blue-glass  screen  that  cut  down  the  physio- 
logical rays  of  the  arc  light  for  photographing  the  eye-movements  was 
reduced  to  one-third  its  normal  thickness ;  (5)  the  time-marking  vibra- 
tor was  partially  withdrawn,  so  that  only  its  narrow  tip  cut  the  light 
beam.  The  last  change  reduced  the  duration  of  the  interruptions  to 
the  least  possible  proportion  of  the  record.  The  faintest  practicable 
time  ordinates  were  desirable  in  order  to  interfere  with  reading  the 
curves  as  little  as  possible.  Dispersed  rays  gave  sharper  shadows  than 
parallel  rays.  But  with  the  dispersion  greater  intensity  of  the  light 


FIG.  7. — Time-recording  interrupter  at  rest. 


FIG.  8. — Interrupter  in  action. 


FIG.  9. — Protective  lid-reflex  record. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS.  61 

was  necessary.  Since  none  of  the  recording  rays  entered  the  eyes, 
this  was  obtained  without  difficulty  by  reducing  the  thickness  of  the 
blue-glass  screen. 

To  secure  a  constant  pre-experimental  position  of  the  lid,  the  subject 
was  instructed  to  look  at  a  regular  fixation  mark.  In  order  to  control 
the  attention  and  respiration  of  the  subject,  as  in  the  knee-jerk,  he  was 
instructed  to  count  in  a  slow  drawl  forwards  or  backwards,  according 
to  the  instructions,  from  a  number  which  was  given  a  second  or  two 
before  the  experiment  began. 

The  following  events  just  preceded  each  record:  (1)  the  opaque 
slide  of  the  plate-holder  was  withdrawn;  (2)  the  shadows  were  observed 
on  the  ground-glass  focusing-screen,  to  be  sure  that  the  light  and 
position  were  satisfactory;  (3)  the  subject  began  to  count;  (4)  the 
plate-holder  mechanism  was  noiselessly  set  in  motion;  (5)  at  fixed 
points  in  its  course  the  moving  plate-holder  broke  the  contacts  which 
controlled  the  movement  of  the  percussion  hammers,  and  consequently 
produced  the  stimulus  noises. 

RECORDS. 

An  illustrative  record  is  shown  in  figure  9.  Reading  the  record 
from  left  to  right,  the  two  breaks  in  the  lower  line  show  the  moments 
of  the  first  and  second  stimulus  respectively.  A  careful  inspection  of 
this  stimulus  record  will  show  two  phases.  A  preliminary  phase  of 
about  5o-  represents  the  recoil  of  the  whole  system  to  the  thrust  of  the 
hammer  as  it  responds  to  the  pressure  of  its  spring.  A  slow-moving 
hammer  increases  this  phase.  Since  it  is  desirable  to  reduce  it  to  a 
minimum,  the  hammer  should  be  of  relatively  small  mass,  and  should 
offer  the  least  possible  resistance  to  the  air,  while  the  spring  should  be 
quick-acting.  The  moment  of  contact  between  hammer  and  sounding- 
board  and  the  consequent  moment  of  the  noise  stimulus  is  shown  by  a 
sudden  interruption  of  this  preliminary  phase.  The  stimulus  record 
then  passes  into  a  series  of  secondary  vibrations  corresponding  to  the 
combination  of  fundamental  periods  of  the  system  and  its  supports. 

The  upper  line  is  a  shadow  of  the  artificial  eyelash.  While  it  runs 
horizontally  the  lid  is  at  rest.  Lid  closure  is  shown  by  a  drop  in  the 
line.  The  moment  of  incidence,  course  of  the  lid-movement,  its  extent, 
and  the  duration  of  the  return  to  its  base-line  can  all  be  read  directly 
from  the  records.  The  abscissae  or  parallels  to  the  base-line  are  2  mm. 
apart.  The  vertical  ordinates  represent  time  intervals  of  0.01  second. 

We  believe  that  our  lid-reflex  technique  guarantees  the  most  exact 
graphic  records  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  of  the  reflex  contraction 
of  human  muscle.  The  apparatus  has  no  instrumental  latency.  The 
muscle  load  is  minimal  and  the  stimulus  is  not  modified  by  the  response 
movement. 

Reading  the  records  for  the  latency  of  the  reflex  is  a  less  exact  process. 
The  gradual  onset  of  a  muscle  contraction  always  makes  it  difficult 


62  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

to  determine  the  instant  at  which  the  movement  began.  To  insure 
the  greatest  uniformity  in  the  reading  of  the  lid-reflex  records  we 
adopted  the  following  rules:  (1)  all  records  are  read  with  a  lens; 
(2)  since  the  moment  of  stimulation  is  more  sharply  defined  than  the 
beginning  of  muscle  contraction,  we  regularly  read  from  the  latter  to 
the  former;  (3)  to  this  end  a  fine  line  scratched  on  a  transparent  glass 
plate  was  first  placed  on  the  record  where  the  shadow  of  the  lid  seemed 
to  leave  its  base-line.  This  was  controlled  by  slight  oscillations  of  the 
scratch  until  it  rested  on  a  point  where  in  motion  to  the  right  the  base- 
line seemed  to  move,  while  in  motion  to  the  left  it  seemed  to  remain 
still.  Estimating  this  point  in  terms  of  one- tenth  of  a  division,  the 
reader  then  read  back  to  the  break  in  the  stimulus-line,  counting  the 
full  spaces  and  estimating  the  rest  in  tenths  of  a  division.  Aside  from 
placing  the  scratch,  we  believe  from  numerous  control  readings  that  the 
errors  of  reading  are  very  small,  certainly  not  over  l<r.  The  errors 
involved  in  finding  the  beginning  of  the  curves  of  small  amplitude  are 
undoubtedly  greater.  But  while  different  readings  of  the  same  curve 
will  vary  in  this  way  occasionally  as  much  as  3  a,  this  represents  an 
extreme  variation.  We  believe  that  the  averages  are  accurate  to  1  a. 

The  extent  of  contraction  of  the  lid-muscle  is  a  complex  trigonomet- 
rical function  of  the  displacement  of  the  shadow.  For  comparative 
purposes,  however,  the  displacement  of  the  shadow  is  a  satisfactory 
measure  when,  as  in  our  records,  the  artificial  eyelash  has  a  uniform 
length.  In  extreme  reflex  movements  the  shadow  will  leave  the  slit 
entirely.  This  deprives  the  curve  of  its  apex.  The  height  of  such 
curves  can  usually  be  estimated  from  the  direction  of  the  visible  lines 
without  significant  loss  of  accuracy. 

A  more  serious  disturbance  occurs  when  the  record  is  complicated  by 
lid-movements  from  other  arcs,  such  as  corneal  reflexes,  changes  in  the 
line  of  regard,  and  voluntary  blinking.  In  most  cases  the  reflex  is 
clearly  distinguishable  from  these  disturbances.  When  there  was  any 
real  ground  for  question  the  readers  were  instructed  to  omit  the 
measurement. 

RESULTS. 

Tables  4  and  5  contain  all  the  available  data  arranged  by  subjects. 
Since  there  was  no  such  extreme  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  protective  lid- 
reflex  as  prevented  accurate  measurements  of  the  patellar  reflex  after 
dose  B,  the  full  program  was  followed;  that  is,  except  for  accidental 
omission,  each  subject  has  two  normal  sessions  at  least,  and  one 
session  each  for  30  c.c.  and  45  c.c.  of  absolute  alcohol  respectively. 
Under  each  subject  is  given  first  the  averages  of  each  experimental 
period  of  each  session.  These  data  will  be  significant  in  the  discussion 
of  individual  peculiarities.  Beside  and  to  the  right  of  these  data,  in 
units  of  measurement,  appear  the  more  significant  differences  between 
the  "normal  of  the  day"  and  subsequent  periods,  according  to  the  for- 
mula D=  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  .  .  .  l-N.  The  subjects  are  given 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS. 


63 


in  the  column  at  the  extreme  left,  together  with  an  indication  of  the 
character  of  the  experimental  day.  R/  and  R"  are  given  in  thousandths 
of  a  second;  H'  and  H"  are  given  in  millimeters  of  lid-movement. 

TABLE  4. — Protective  lid-reflex  measurements. 


] 

a' 

] 

a' 

] 

I" 

I 

I" 

Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and  number  of 
period. 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject  II. 

Nov   14,  1913: 

1.  . 

27 

16 

28 

7  1 

2 

28 

_  i 

18 

-  2 

28 

o 

12  0 

—  49 

3  

42 

-15 

16 

0 

33 

-  5 

11  7 

-46 

4  
5 

31 
39 

-  4 
-12 

18 

18 

-  2 
_  2 

35 
35 

-  7 
_  7 

15.0 
15  0 

-  7.9 
—  79 

Average  

33 

-  8 

17.2 

-1.5 

32 

-  4.7 

12.1 

-  6.32 

Mean  variation.   . 

5 

0.% 

3 

2  2 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

Nov.  20,  1913: 
1  
2                 ... 

140 
39 

+  1 

113.5 
12  0 

+  15 

135 
30 

+  5 

11S.O 
12  0 

+  16 

3 

41 

_  i 

9  0 

+  45 

37 

—  2 

3  8 

+  92 

4  
5 

43 
41 

-  3 
_  i 

12.0 
15  0 

+  1.5 
-  1  5 

34 
38 

+  1 
_  3 

15.9 
16  0 

-  2.9 
—  30 

Average  

41 

-  1 

12.0 

+  1.5 

35 

+  0.2 

11.9 

+  1.07 

Mean  variation.   . 

1 

1.5 

3 

4.07 

Normal 

Dec  5   1913' 

1           

32 

222 

33 

13  0 

2 

34 

-  2 

222 

0 

30 

+  3 

14  0 

-10 

3  

38 

-  6 

222 

0 

34 

1 

16.0 

-  3.0 

4  

34 
34 

-  2 
-  3 

222 

222 

0 

o 

35 
33 

-  2 

o 

10.0 
13  2 

+  3.0 
-  0.33 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Dec.  19,  1913: 
1 

1 
130  5 

0 

222 

1 

129 

1.7 

2££ 

2  
3  
4  

35.5 
35.5 
38.0 

-  5.0 
-  5.0 
-  8.5 

222 
J22 
222 

0 
0 
0 

35 

27 
35 

-  6 

+  2 
-  6 

9 
222 
15 

+13 
0 

+  7 

5  

42.5 
37.9 

-12.0 
-  7.6 

222 
^22 

0 
0 

37 
33 

0 

-  4.5 

12 
14.5 

+10 
+  7.5 

Alcohol  (dose  B)   . 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Mar.  10,  1914: 
1 

2.4 

130  7 

0 

125  7 

3 

1S7 

4 

14  2 

2  
3 

37.0 
35  0 

-  6.3 
-43 

16.0 
16  0 

+  9.7 
+  9.7 

36 
35 

+  1 

+  2 

4.5 
4  0 

-  0.3 

+  0.2 

4  

34.0 

-  3.3 

11.5 

+14.2 

35 

+  2 

2.0 

+  2.2 

Average  
Mean  variation. 

35.0 
1.0 

-  4.6 

14.5 
2.0 

+11.2 

35 
0.3 

+  2 

3.5 
1.0 

+  0.7 

Normal  

Mar.  17,  1914: 

28 

26.4 

30 

8.0 

2 

25 

+  3 

25  0 

+  14 

31 

_  i 

13  9 

-  5.9 

3  
4  
5 

31 

28 
29 

-  3 
0 
_  i 

22.3 
26.2 
25  0 

+  4.1 
+  0.2 
+  14 

28 
36 
35 

+  2 
-  6 
-  5 

17.5 
14.0 
11.0 

-  9.5 
-  6.0 
-  3.0 

6  

35 

rj 

26.7 

-  0.3 

32 

-  2 

5.5 

2.5 

Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

29.5 
2.5 

-  1.6 

25.3 
1.2 

+  1.36 

32 
2 

-  2.4 

11.6 
3.5 

-  4.38 

^he  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was 
given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 
^Approximate. 


64 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  4. — Protective  litfarcflex  measurements — Continued. 


] 

V 

I 

I' 

I 

I" 

I 

I" 

Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and  number  of 
period. 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
d-2, 
1-3, 

etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 

etc.). 

Subject  III. 
Normal  

Jan.  19,  1914: 
1  

a 
33 

a 

mm. 
31 

mm. 

a 
42 

<T 

mm. 
I  1 

mm. 

2  

32 

-}-   1 

19  7 

+11  3 

38 

+  4 

1  2 

+  05 

3  

34  7 

—  2 

15  7 

+  15  3 

42 

o 

1  7 

0  0 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

4  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 
Jan  26,  1914: 
1                    ... 

38 
34.4 
1.9 

1SO  7 

-  5 
-  2 

11.0 
19.3 
6 

115  0 

+20.0 
+15.53 

47 
42 
2 

igg 

-  5 
-  0.3 

0.7 
1.3 
0.4 

15  5 

+  1.0 
+  0.5 

2  
3             .... 

37.7 
46 

-  7 
—  15 

9.2 
1  6 

+  5.8 
+  13  4 

38 
(t\ 

-10 

p) 

0.2 

o 

+  3.3 

+     0     C 

4  
5  
6  

46 
35 
33 
39  5 

-15 

-  4 
-  2 
-86 

1.0 
4.0 
3.0 
3  8 

+  14.0 
+  11.0 
+  12.0 
+11  24 

43 
(3) 
33 
38 

-15 
(') 
-  5 
10 

.2 
.1 
.7 
2 

+  3.3 
+  3.4 
+  2.8 
i    o  2fi 

Alcohol  (dose  B)  .  . 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Feb.  9,  1914: 
1  

5.2 

129 

2.3 

112 

3 

lsg 

.1 

13  g 

2 

39 

10 

2 

+10  0 

38 

g 

3 

40 

11 

1  5 

+10  5 

41 

Q 

Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

37 
39 
1 

-  8 
-  9.7 

2.4 
1.9 
3 

+  9.6 
+10.03 

39 
39 
1 

-  7 
-  7 

.2 
2 

o 

+  3.3 
+  3.3 

Normal  

Subject  IV. 
Normal  

Mar.  9,  1914: 

2................. 
3  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

Jan.  30,  1914: 
1  

35 
41 
34 
37 
3 

44.7 

-  6 
+  1 
-  2.5 

13 
17 
10.7 
13.6 
2.3 

4 

-  4 
+  2.3 
-     .85 

38 
44 
39 
40 
2 

49 

-6 
-   1 
-  3.5 

0.4 
1.4 
0.8 
.9 
.4 

0  7 

-  ilo 

-  0.4 
-     .7 

2  
3  
4  
5             .    . 

39.5 
45 
53 
47 

+  5.2 
-  0.3 
-  8.3 
—  23 

3.4 
2 
1.4 
2 

+  0.6 
+  2.0 
+  2.6 
_i_  o  0 

48 
40 
49 
(t\ 

+  1 
+  9 
0 
(t\ 

.3 
1.0 
.2 

+  0.4 
-      .3 
+     .5 

Alcohol  (dose  B)  .  . 

Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 
Feb.  13,  1914: 
1  

45.8 
3.3 

140 

-  1.4 

2.6 
.9 

'</  9 

+  1.8 

46.6 
3.3 

m 

+  3.3 

.4 
.3 

+     .32 

2  
3  

36 

46 

+  4 
—  6 

2.4 
0  9 

-   1.5 
0  0 

46 

/TV 

(') 
/t\ 

.6 

-  0.5 

Normal  

4  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 
Mar.  19.  1914: 

2  !. 

35 
39 
5 

51 
55 

+  5 

+  1 

—  4 

.7 
1.3 
.7 

1.3 
2  2 

+      .2 
-     .43 

0  9 

(*) 
46 

O 

CO 

C) 
/t\ 

0 
.2 
.2 

0.0 

0 
.17 

3  

50 

-|-  i 

2  2 

i) 

40 

/i\ 

4  

44 

+  7 

2  0 

7 

5  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

46 
49 
3 

+  5 
+  2.2 

1.7 
1.9 
.3 

-     .4 
-     .7 

52 
50 

1 

(*) 

.7 
.6 
.3 

-     .7 
-     .75 

values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was 
given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 
*No  reaction.  Illegible  becau.se  reaction  was  too  slight. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS. 


65 


TABLE  4. — Protective  lid-reflex  measurements — Continued. 


] 

V 

] 

I' 

I 

I" 

I 

[" 

Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and  number  of 
period. 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 

etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 

etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence, 
(1-2 
1-3, 
etc.)  . 

Subject  VI. 
Normal  

Oct.  22,  1913: 

IT 

29 

a 

mm. 
*25 

mm. 

IT 

(2) 

<r 

mm. 
C) 

mm. 

2  
3 

« 
33 

(3) 
—  4 

O 

21 

A 

+  4 

O 
30 

O 
(*) 

O 
19 

(0 

O 

4  
6  
6  

30 
36 
(*) 

-   1 

-  7 
(*) 

21 
20 

(3) 

+  4 
+  5 

(3) 

O 

o 
o 

(*) 
O 

(2) 

« 

(3) 

(3) 

o 
n 

(3) 

Average  

32 

-  4 

21 

+  4.3 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Oct.  29,  1913: 
1  

2 

*48 

1.2 

4/S.O 

440 

4£0.0 

2 

46 

0 

1  7 

+11  3 

51 

—  11 

4  1 

+15  9 

3         

60 

-14 

2.4 

+10  6 

49 

-  9 

1  4 

+18  6 

4                 

52 

-  6 

1  6 

+11  4 

50 

—  10 

2  0 

+18  0 

5 

45 

-f.  i 

6  8 

+  62 

38 

+  2 

3  0 

+17  0 

6  

54 
51 

-  8 
-54 

6.5 
3  8 

+  6.5 
+  92 

39 
45 

+  1 
5  4 

11.0 
4.3 

+  9.0 

+15  7 

Mean  variation. 

5 

2.3 

6 

2.7 

Normal  

Nov.  5,  1913: 
1 

37 

16 

33 

10 

2  
3 

40 
30 

-  3 

+  7 

9 
10 

+  7 
+  6 

40 
37 

-  7 
4 

4 
6 

+  6 
+  4 

4 

47 

10 

6 

+10 

35 

2 

3  7 

+  63 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 
Nov.  12,  1913: 
1                 .    . 

38 
5 

4/J 

-  2 

10 
2.7 

414 

+  7.7 

36 
2 

447 

-  4.3 

5.9 
2.1 

44  6 

+  5.43 

2 

35 

+  6 

7  3 

+  67 

44 

+  3 

4  1 

+  05 

3  

4 

44 
37 

-  3 

+  4 

11.0 
0  0 

+  3.0 

+14  0 

43 

38 

+  4 
+  9 

1.3 
5  0 

+  3.3 
-04 

5 

37 

+  4 

2  3 

+11  7 

39 

+  8 

2  7 

+  19 

Average  

38 

+  2.7 

5.1 

+  8.85 

41 

+  6 

3.3 

+  1.32 

Normal  (12  hr.  ex- 
periment) . 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Dec.  22,  1913: 
1  

3 

33 

4.0 

45 

2 

<*) 

1.3 

fl 

2 

31 

+  2 

15 

o 

30 

(2) 

15 

(3) 

3  
4 

32 
29 

+  1 
+  4 

15 
15 

0 

o 

29 

(*) 

0 
(2) 

15 

(3) 

<*) 

(3) 

5     

O 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(*) 

6             

35 

_  2 

15 

o 

(2) 

(2) 

(3) 

(3) 

7 

36 

—  3 

10 

+  5 

(*) 

(2) 

O 

(3) 

8     

29 

+  4 

15 

o 

(2) 

(2) 

(3) 

O 

9  
10 

(2) 
32 

(2) 
-j_  i 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

<*) 
(*) 

(') 
(2) 

(") 
(3) 

n 

(3) 

Average  

32 

-f  1 

14 

+  0.8 

29.5 

15 

Alcohol    (dose   C; 
12  hr.   experi- 

Mean variation.  . 
Dec.  23,  1913: 
1      

2 

438 

1.4 

415 

0.5 

(2) 

0 

(3) 

ment). 

2 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(2) 

fl 

(3) 

3 

38 

o 

115 

o 

(«) 

(2) 

(3) 

(3) 

4  
5 

(*) 
35 

(2) 

+  3 

(*) 
15 

(3) 

o 

(2) 
(2) 

(2) 
(2) 

(3) 

O 

« 

00 

Approximate.  2Voluntary  anticipatory  lid-movement.  3No  record. 

*The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was 
given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 


66 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  4. — Protective  lid-reflex  measurements — Continued. 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and  number  of 
period. 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.) 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2. 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject  VI—  con. 
Alcohol    (doae  C; 
12  hr.  experi- 
ment) —  con. 

Alcohol  (dose  B)  .  . 

Subject  VII. 
Normal  

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 
Normal 

Dec.  23,  1913—  con. 
6  

ff 
39 
33 
33 

(l) 

0) 

30 
35 
3 

'39.7 
45.5 
45.0 
46.0 
43.0 
36.0 
43.1 
2.9 

44 
41 
37 
40 
40 
40 
2 

'33.6 
37 
36 
38 
43 
44 
39 
3 

38 
36 
33 
35 
1.7 

'S9 
47 
38 
42 
40 
40 
41 
2 

a 

+  5 
+  6 

o 
o 

-1-  8 
+  3 

-'5.8 
-  5.3 
-  6.3 
-  3.3 
+  3.7 
-  3.4 

+  '3'" 
+  7 
+  4 
+  4 
+  4.5 

mm. 
15 
15 
15 
O 
C) 
15 
15 
0 

'11.3 
1.5 
0.85 
0.8 
1.2 
5.0 
1.87 
1.25 

20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 

o 

mm. 
0 
0 
0 
0 
O 
0 
0 

a 

0) 
0) 

o 
(') 
o 

0) 

a 

(') 

0 
0 
0) 

(l) 
0 

mm. 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

mm. 

0 

(') 
o 
o 
0 
(f) 

7  
g 

9  

10  

11  
Average  

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Jan.  22,  1914: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
6  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

Oct.  21,  1913: 
1             

+  '918' 
+  10.45 
+10.5 
+10.1 
+  6.3 
+  9.43 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

'39 
38 
49 
39 
33 
39 
39 
3 

45 
42 
40 
40 
39 
41 
2 

+"i'" 

-10 
0 
+  6 
0 
-  0.6 

+"3"' 
+  5 
+  5 
+  6 
+  4.7 

'3.7 
1.3 
0.3 
0.2 
5.0 
2.3 
1.8 
1.4 

5 
20 
20 
20 
17 
16.4 
4.6 

'+2.4 
+  3.4 
+  3.5 
-  1.3 
+  1-4 
+  1.88 

-15 
-15 
-15 
-12 
-14 

2                 

3                  ... 

4 

5 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Oct.  28,  1913: 

2  

-3.5 
-  2.5 
-  4.5 
-  9.5 
-10.5 
-  6.1 

»«0 
20 
20 
15 
15 
13 
16 
2.6 

20 
20 
20 
20 
0 

*0 

14 
15 
12 
14 
18 
14 
1.4 

0 
0 
+  5 
+  5 
+  7 
+  3.4 

0 
0 
0 

+  6 
+  5 
+  8 
+  6 
+  2 
+  5.4 

'36 
35 
42 
37 
42 
40 
39 
3 

36 
40 
39 
38 
1.7 

0 
39 
33 
43 
39 
44 
39 
4 

+"i'" 

-  6 
-  1 
-  6 
-  4 
-  3.2 

'-'4'" 
-  3 
-  3.5 

'"A"' 

0 
0) 

0 
0 

'9.1 
10.0 
2.7 
1.9 
0.8 
1.3 
3.3 
2.6 

1.5 
0 
1.0 
.8 
.6 

(*) 
1.1 
14.0 
.7 
.9 
5.0 
5.1 
4.4 

-0.9 
+  6.4 
+  7.2 
+  8.3 
+  7.8 
+  5.8 

3  

4  

5  
6  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 
Nov.  4,  1913: 
1. 

+  '3'" 
+  5 
4 

'-'B  '" 
+  i 

-  3 
-   1 
-   1 
-  2.4 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  . 

2 

+  1.5 
+  0.5 
+  1.0 

.  .  _  .  . 
0 

0 
0 
o 

3 

Average 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Nov.  11,  1913: 
1. 

2.  .. 

3. 

4.    . 

5. 

6.    . 

Average 

Mean  variation.  .  . 

!Voluntary  anticipatory  lip-movement.  *No  record. 

The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS. 

TABLE  4. — Protective  lid-reflex  measurements — Continued. 


67 


] 

V 

] 

a' 

] 

I" 

I 

I" 

Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and  number  of 
period. 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
d-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject  VII  —  con. 
Alcohol  (dose  B)  .  . 

Mar.  13,  1914: 
1 

a 
1S1 

a 

mm. 

124 

mm. 

a 

132 

a 

mm. 
10 

mm. 

2  

30 

+  1 

21 

+  3 

34 

-  2 

1  2 

+  78 

3  
4 

38 
32 

-  7 
—   i 

12 
20 

+12 
+  4 

31 
32 

+  1 

o 

1.5 
2 

+  7.5 

_i_  7 

5  

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

33.3 
3 

-  2 

17.7 
3.8 

6.3 

32 
1 

-  0.3 

1.5 

.27 

+  7.4 

Normal  

Mar.  20,  1914: 

1                 

34 

20  5 

35 

8  9 

2 

31 

+  3 

26  7 

—  62 

34 

_l_  i 

5  0 

iq  q 

3  

36 

-  2 

16.9 

+  36 

36 

_  i 

2  7 

+6  3 

4  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

33 
33.5 
1.5 

+  1 
+  0.7 

24.0 
22.0 
3.3 

-  3.5 
-  2.0 

32 
34 
1 

+  3 

7.9 
6.0 
2  3 

+1.0 
3.7 

Subject  IX. 
Normal  

Oct.  27,  1913: 

1  

43 

14 

33 

5.1 

2                         .    . 

38 

+  5 

17  5 

—  35 

34 

1 

10  0 

4  9 

4             

35 

38 

+  8 
+  5 

320.0 
11  5 

-  6.0 

+  25 

38 
38 

-  5 
5 

4.5 
13  0 

+  0.6 
7  9 

5 

32 

+11 

18  0 

4  o 

38 

g 

13  0 

7  9 

Average  

37 

+  7.2 

16.2 

-  2  75 

36 

4 

9  1 

5  02 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Nov.  3,  1913: 
1      

3 

14S 

2.8 
117 

2 

(4) 

3.5 

(4) 

2                     .    .    .    . 

39 

+  3 

9  3 

+  77 

39 

(t\ 

2  1 

(4\ 

3 

45 

—  3 

5  5 

+11  5 

42 

(4\ 

0  6 

(4) 

Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 
Nov   10   1913' 

42 
3 

0 

7.4 
1.9 

+  9.6 

40 
1.5 

(4) 

1.3 
0.75 

(4) 

1  

35 

315 

41 

6 

2                             .    . 

36 

—  i 

15 

o 

39 

_i_  o 

7 

1 

3 

34 

-f.  i 

15 

o 

31 

4-10 

6  5 

0  5 

4         

33 

+  2 

15 

o 

36 

+  5 

9  1 

3  1 

Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

34 
1 

+  0.7 

15 

0 

0 

37 
3 

+  6 

7.1 
0.95 

-  1.53 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

Nov.  17,  1913: 
1 

136 

118 

1S5 

(&\ 

2  

39 

0 

12.6 

+  54 

(4) 

(4) 

(5) 

3  
4 

46 
39 

-10 
_  3 

18.7 
19  3 

-  0.7 
1  3 

39 
43 

-  4 

g 

(5) 
(&) 



5  

36 

0 

20  0 

-20 

35 

o 

(5) 

6                     

37 

—  i 

18  7 

—  07 

37 

_  2 

(5) 

Average  

39 

-  3.4 

17.8 

+  0.14 

38 

-  3.5 

Normal  (12  hr.  ex- 
periment) . 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Jan.  1,  1914: 
1 

2 

31 

2.1 

9  4 

2 

44 

2  50 

2  

30.2 

+  0.8 

11.6 

-22 

30 

+14 

4  50 

—  2 

3  
4 

31.7 

33  5 

-  0.7 

—  25 

6.7 
14  5 

+  2.7 
—  51 

32 
30 

+12 
+14 

2.87 
3  25 

-  0.37 
0  75 

5  

40.3 

Q      O 

9.3 

+  0.1 

28 

+16 

6.83 

-  4  33 

6  

7                    .    . 

32.0 
34  0 

-  1.0 
-30 

18.0 
14  0 

-  8.6 
-46 

36 
37 

+  8 

+  7 

4.83 
5  25 

-  2.33 
2  75 

lThe  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  waa 
given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 

^Illegible.  'Approximate.  4No  record.  5Voluntary  anticipatory  lid-movement. 


68  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

TABLE  4. — Protective  lid^reflex  measurements — Continued. 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and  number  of 
period. 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

Aver- 
age of 

icrin.l. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 

etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2. 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject  IX  —  con. 
Normal  (12  hr.  ex- 
periment) —  con. 

Alcohol    (dose   C; 
12  hr.  experi- 
ment). 

Alcohol  (dose  B)   . 

Subject  X. 
Normal 

Jan.  1,  1914  —  con. 
g 

ff 
34.7 
27.0 
32.0 
32.6 
2.3 

129  7 

<r 
-  3.7 
+  4.0 
+  1.0 
-  1.6 

mm. 
9.8 
22.0 
19.3 
13.46 
4.10 

113 

mm. 
-  0.4 
-12.6 
-  9.9 
-  4.51 

a 
39 
45 
36 
35.6 
4.5 

140  7 

a 
+  5 
-  1 
+  8 
+  9.2 

mm. 
2.83 
5.0 
3.0 
4.08 
1.19 

5.25 
4.87 
1.87 
2.37 
5.50 

0 

2.0 
2.0 
10.5 
9.0 
4.82 
2.47 

16.S 
26.0 
(*) 
0 
23.0 
5.2 
18.0 
8.6 

0.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.5 
.5 
.2 
.2 

'0.0 
.15 

""."»' 
.2 
.1 
.13 
.05 

mm. 
-  0.33 
-  2.50 
-  0.50 
-  1.76 

+  o!75 
+  1.13 
+  4.13 
+  3.63 
+  0.50 
0 
+  4.00 
+  4.00 
-  4.50 
-  3.00 
+  1.18 

-19.7 
0 

0 

-16.7 

iJA 

6 

0 
0 
-  0.5 
-      .5 
-     .2 

-0.15 

-      .2 
-      .2 

-    lie 



9  

10 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Jan.  2,  1914: 
1 

2         

31.2 
28.0 
30.5 
31.5 
36.0 

(*) 

41.5 
40.3 
31.7 
34.7 
33.0 
4.0 

131 
38.7 
38.0 
32.0 
36.0 
25.0 
33.9 
4.4 

32 

-  1.5 
+  1.7 
-  0.8 
-  1.8 
-  6.3 
fl 
-11.8 
-10.6 
-  2.0 
-  5.0 
-  4.2 

-*8 
-  7 
-  1 
-  5 
+  6 
-  3 

9.12 
14.0 
8.12 
9.75 
8.0 
(*) 
5.87 
6.33 
6.83 
14.25 
9.14 
2.35 

1S6 
5.7 
10.3 
14.7 
2.7 
14.5 
9.6 
4.3 

2.2 

+  3.88 
-  1.0 
+  4.88 
+  3.25 
+  5.0 
O 
+  7.13 
+  6.67 
+  6.17 
-   1.25 
+  3.86 

+2o!  3 
+15.7 
+  11.3 
+23.3 
+  11.5 
+16.42 

32.5 
35.0 
38.5 
43.5 
35.3 
0 
51.3 
39.0 
37.0 
31.0 
38.0 
4.3 

I4l 
38 
(s) 
(') 
37 
33 
36 
2 

(4) 
(4) 
(4) 
(4) 
(') 
(5) 

+  8.2 
+  5.7 
+  2.2 
-  2.8 
+  5.4 
0 
-10.6 
-   1.7 
-  3.7 
-  9.7 
-  0.8 

'+'3'" 
(') 
(') 
+  4 
+  8 
+  5 

.  .  _  .  . 

(4) 
(4) 
(8) 
C) 

3         

4  
5  
6  
7  
8             

9             

10                 

11  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 
Jan.  21,  1914: 
1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Mean  variation.  .  . 

Mar.  11,  1914: 
1  

Alcohol  (dose  A)  . 

2  

38 
41 
40 
34 
31 
36 
4 

141 

36 
45 
41 
39 
44 
41 
3 

-  6 
-  9 
-  8 
-  2 
+  1 
-  4.8 

0.7 
.9 
.5 
1.5 
1.2 
1.17 
.45 

+  1.5 
+  1.3 
+  1.7 
+  0.7 
+  1.0 
+  1.24 

3  

4  

5  

6  

Average  

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Mar.  18,  1914: 
1 

ll  6 

(4) 
<•) 
(4) 
(') 
<*) 
« 

•  •  -(6)  •  • 

(4) 
(*) 
<*> 
(') 

2 

+  5 
-  4 
0 
+  2 
-  3 
0 

.7 
1.8 
1.0 
1.7 
0.7 
1.2 
.5 

+  0.9 
-      .2 
+      .6 
-      .1 
+     .9 
+     .42 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Average  
Mean  variation. 

'The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was 
given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 
•No  record.  4No  reaction. 

'Voluntary  anticipatory  lid-movement,  *D  legible  because  reaction  was  too  slight. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS. 


69 


TABLE  4. — Protective  lid-reflex  measurements — Continued. 
PSYCHOPATHIC  SUBJECTS. 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and  number  of 
period. 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 

etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 

etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject  XI. 
Normal            .    ... 

Mar.  26,  1914: 

a 
38 
38 
37 
38 
0  3 

a 

'"o"' 

+  1 
+  0.5 

mm. 
1.5 
1.3 
0.7 
1.2 
.3 

mm. 

+  0.2 
+  0.8 
+  0.5 

ff 

O 
O 

(2) 

9 
.  .^  .  . 

C) 

mm. 
0 
0 
0.1 
.03 
.04 

mm. 

"o.o 

-  0.1 
.05 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 
Normal  

1  

2  
3 

Average  
Mean  variation. 

Mar.  27,  1914: 
1  

357 
0) 
71 
32 
51 
19 

37 
34 
30 
34 
2 

37 
36 
O 
51 
47 
43 
6 

.  .  _  .  . 

-34 
+  5 
-14.5 

•1.4 

0 

.1 

.2 

!o7 

+'I'A 

+  1.3 
+  1.2 
+  1.3 

*38 
O 

O 

o 

.  .  _  .  . 

o 
o 

3l.S 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0  1 

+'i'.2 

+  1.2 
+  1.2 
+  1.2 

2  

3 

4  

Average 

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Mar.  28,  1914: 

+  '3'" 
+  7 
+  5 

0.9 
.9 
.9 
.9 
.0 

6.1 
3.2 
.1 
.2 
.4 
2.0 
2.1 

40 

Subject  XII. 

1. 

2  

0 
0 
0 

+  2^9 
+  6.0 
+  5.9 
+  5.7 
+  5.12 

27 

O 
33 
6 

(') 
O 

(') 

0 

a 

+13 

0 

o 

.  .  _  .  . 

C) 

o 

0 

.3 
.05 
.15 
.1 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

-  0.2 
+     .05 
-     .07 

3  
Average  

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Apr.  2,  1914: 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

Normal  

Subject  XIV. 
Normal  

2 

+  1 
(«) 
-14 
-10 
-  8 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

3  
4  
5 

Average  
Mean  variation. 

Apr.  3,  1914: 
1  
2 

339 
48 
35 
52 
O 
45 
7 

-'9'" 
+  4 
-13 

O 
-  6 

33.6 
1.0 
1.2 
0.1 
0 
.6 
.5 

+"2!6' 
+  2.4 
+  3.5 
+  3.6 
+  3.02 

3S9 

0 
C) 

(*) 

0 

.  .  _  .  . 

C) 

o 

0) 

30.1 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

+"6!i' 
+    .1 
+    .1 
+    .1 
+   .1 

3  
4  
5 

Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

Apr.  4,  1914: 
1 

40 
42 
42 
41 
1 

-'2 
—   2 
-  2 

0.5 
.03 
.2 
.24 
.IT 

+0.47 
+   .30 
+  .38 

O 

34 

P) 
34 

.  .  _  .  . 

0) 

0 
0.5 
0 
0.2 
0.2 

2 

-  0.5 
.0 
-     .25 

3 

Average  
Mean  variation. 

Apr.  23,  1914: 
1  

44 
41 
36 
41 
40 
2 

+  '3'" 
+  8 
+  3 
+  4.7 

11.1 
7.0 
4.2 
10.0 
8.1 
2.5 

'+4.1 
+  6.9 
+  1.1 
+  4.0 

P) 
O 
O 
0 

"*<*>" 

o 
o 

0.1 
0 
0 
0 
0.02 
.03 

o.i 
.1 

...:{. 

2  
3 

4  
Average  

JNo  reaction.  Illegible  because  reaction  was  too  slight. 

The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was 
given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 


70 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 
TABLE  4. — Protective  lid-reflex  measurements — Continued. 
PSYCHOPATHIC  SUBJECTS— Continued. 


] 

If 

] 

I' 

1 

," 

X 

[" 

Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and  number  of 
period. 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

DifTer- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age of 
period. 

Differ- 
ence 
(1-2, 
1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject  XIV—  con. 
Alcohol  (dose  A)  .  . 

Apr.  24,  1914: 
1  
2  
3           

a 

lss 

33 
39 

9 
•••-•• 

—  4 

mm. 
11.9 
1.2 
0.4 

+"6'.7' 
+  1.5 

a 

0 

o 

(*) 

<r 
•  •  '(3)  '  ' 
(*) 

mm. 
*0.1 
0 
0.1 

mm. 

+"6'.i' 

+  0 

4  
5       

36 
34 

-   1 
1 

.7 
.3 

+  1.2 
+  1.6 

o 

(*) 

(') 
(*) 

.02 
.02 

+  0.08 
+     .08 

6         

35 

0 

.2 

+  1.7 

(*) 

o 

.05 

+     .05 

Average  

35 

0.4 

.5 

+  1.34 

.04 

+  .062 

Normal  

Mean  variation.  .  . 
Apr.  25,  1914: 

2             '. 

1 

34 
34 

6 

.3 

0.3 
6 

-  0.3 

32 
38 

-  6 

.03 

0.05 

.10 

-  0.05 

3  
Average  
Mean  variation.  .  . 

36 
35 

1 

-  2 

-  1 

.7 
.5 
.2 

-     .4 
-     .35 

36 
35 
2 

-  4 
-  5 

.02 
.06 
.03 

+     .03 
-     .01 

'The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was  given  and  are 
therefore  not  included  in  the  averages.  'Illegible  because  reaction  was  too  alight.  JNo  reaction. 

TABLE  5. — Summary  of  average  differences  in  the  protective  lid-reflex  measurements.1 


Subjects. 

Normal. 

Alcohol  (dose  A). 

Alcohol  (dose  B). 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

Normal: 
II 

<T 
-8.0 
-3.0 
-1.6 
-4.2 
-4.8 
-1.4 
+2.2 
+0.4 
-4.0 
-2.0 
-3.0 
-2.0 
-2.5 
-2.2 
+7.2 
+0.7 
+3.9 
+4.5 
+4.0 
+0.7 
+3.1 

+0.5 
+5.0 
+2.7 
-8.0 
-2.0 
-5.0 
+4.7 
-1.0 
+1.8 

mm. 
-  1.5 
0.0 
+  1.36 
0.0 
+  1.2 
+  1.8 
-  0.7 
+  0.5 
+  4.3 
+  7.7 
+  6.0 
+15.5 
-  0.8 
+  7.3 
-  2.7 
0.0 
-  1.3 
0.0 
0.0 
-  2.0 
-  0.8 

+  0.5 
0.0 
+  0.2 
+  5.12 
+  0.38 
+  2.7 
+  4.0 
-  0.35 
+  1.8 

a- 
-4.7 
0 
-2.4 
-2.4 

+3.6 

mm. 
-  6.3 
-  0.3 
-  4.4 
-  3.7 
-  0.2 
+  0.3 
-  0.7 
-  0.2 

a 
-  1.0 
-  7.6 

-  4.3 

0.0 

mm. 
+  1.5 
0.0 

tr 
+  0.2 
-  4.5 

mm. 
+  1.1 
+  7.5 

a 
-4.6 

+  11.2 

a 

+2.0 

mm. 
+  0.7 

Average  .  .  . 
X  
IV  

Average..  . 
VI  

Average  .  .  . 
Ill  

Average  .  .  . 
IX  

Average  .  .  . 
VII  

+  0.7 

+  0.42 

-  2.1 

+  4.3 
-  0.20 

-  6!2 

+'i'.9 

+1.0 

-  0.4 

-4!  6 

-4.0 

-0.3 
-3.6 

-4!o 
+6.0 
+1.0 
+4.7 
-3.5 
+  1.0 
+0.7 

+"5:4" 
+  5.4 
+  0.5 
-  0.7 
-0.1 
-  5.0 
-  1.5 
-  3.2 
-14.0 
+  1.0 
+  3.7 
-  3.1 

-  0.05 
-  0  07 

-  6.4 
+  2.7 
-  1.3 
-  8.6 

+  9.2 
+  8.8 
+  9.0 
+11.2 

-  5.4 
+  6.0 
+  0.3 
-10.0 

+15.7 
+  1.3 
+  8.5 
+  3.3 

"  0  " 

-3.4 

+  9.4 

-0.6 

+  3^3 

-9.7 

+10.0 

-7.0 

-s!6 

0.0 
-  3.4 
-  1.7 
-  6.1 
-  2.2 

+  9.6 
+  0.1 
+  4.8 
+  3.4 
+  5.4 

-'3.  '5 

-  3.5 

-  3.2 

+16.4 

+5.0 

-11.8 

+  5.8 

-2.0 

+  6.3 

-0.3 

+  7.4 

Average  .  .  . 

Psychopathic: 
XI  

Average  .  .  . 
XII  

Average  .  .  . 
XIV  

-  4.1 

-14.5 

+  4.4 

+  1.3 

+  1.2 

-  0.06 

0.00 
-  0  25 

-'eio 

+  3.0 

+  0.1 

-  0.12 

+  1.00 
-  0.01 
+  0.49 

-  0.4 

+  1.34 

+  0.06 

Average  .  .  . 

'Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 


'Illegible. 


SIMPLEST   NEURAL   ARCS. 


71 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PROTECTIVE  LID-REFLEX. 

(1)  Summaries  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  computed  according  to  the 
usual  formulae  are  contained  in  table  6.  From  this  table,  summary  of 
the  normal  subjects,  it  appears  that  30  c.c.  alcohol  increased  the  latent 
time  of  the  response  of  the  first  stimulus  in  4  out  of  6  subjects  by  an 

TABLE  6. — Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  protective  lid-reflex. 
[R'  and  R"  are  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and  kind  of 
experiment. 

Effect  as  shown  in  average 
differences.1 

Effect  as  shown  in  percentile 
differences.2 

R' 

H' 

R" 

H" 

R'          H' 

R" 

H" 

Normal  subjects. 
Dose  A: 
II 

<T 

-  0.1 
+  4.8 

mm. 
+  0.7 
-  0.8 

+  0.3 

mm. 
+  8.0 
0.0 

p.ct. 
-  0.3 
+13.3 

p.ct. 
+  4.0 
-42.0 

p.ct. 
+  1.0 

p.ct. 
+  63.5 

X  
IV 

VI  

+  1.7 
-  6.4 
-  5.6 
-  7.2 
-  2.0 

-  0.4 

+  3.0 
+  3.9 
+  6.1 
+  5.2 
+  3.0 

+11.2 

+  4.3 
-  8.1 
-  4.5 
-  3.9 
-  2.4 

+  4.4 

+  3.1 
+  3.4 

+"s!9' 

+  4.7 

+  4.4 

+  4.5 
-19.4 
-14.3 
-19.2 
-  5.9 

-  1.4 

+18.0 
+20.0 
+38.0 
+26.0 
+10.7 

+49.7 

+10.7 
-22.5 
-12.5 
-10.3 
-  6.8 

+13.7 

+  27.0 
+179.0 

+146.0 
+103.9 

+  54.0 

Ill  

IX 

VII  

Average  . 

DoseB: 
II  

rv 

+  0.6 
-  0.4 
-  7.5 
-  6.9 
-  5.1 
-  3.3 

+  2.0 
-  2.6 
-  0.3 

-  0.9 

+  3.4 
+  2.7 
+17.7 
+  7.1 
+  6.9 

-  0.8 
+  8.3 
+  3.7 

+  '3A 
-  5.1 
+  4.0 
-  1.0 
+  1.1 

(3) 
-10.0 

0.0 
-  3.5 
+  3.4 
-  8.6 
+10.5 
+  1.0 

+  1.3 
-  1.1 
-23.2 
-19.2 
-13.8 
-  9.5 

+  5.7 
-  8.6 
-  1.4 

-42.8 
+19.5 
+14.4 
+96.7 
+33.8 
+28.5 

-  5.0 
+74.0 
+34.0 

+"9!4' 
-13.8 
+10.5 
-  2.7 
+  3.4 

-51.0 
+179.0 
-148.0 
+172.0 
+  41.0 

VI  
Ill 

IX  
VII 

Average  

12  hr.  experiments. 

Dose  C: 
VI  
IX 

+  2.9 

-23.6 

+  69.0 

Psychopathic  subjects. 

Dose  A: 
XI  
XII 

-17.2 
-   1.0 
-  2.2 
-  6.8 

+  1.1 
-  0.3 
-  0.5 
+  0.1 

(a) 
(3) 
(3) 

+  1.26 
+  0.22 
-  0.42 
+  0.35 

-46.0 
-  2.6 
-  5.8 
-18.1 

+85.0 
-  9.0 
-11.0 
+22.0 

(3) 
« 
(3) 



XIV  

Average  

*Effect  on  the  average  difference  equals  (av.  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc.,  alcohol)  minus  (av.  1-2,  1-3, 
1—4,  etc.,  normal). 

2Effect  on  the  percentile  difference  equals  average  difference  divided  by  average  of  the  cor- 
responding first  periods. 

"Illegible. 

average  of  5.9  per  cent.  At  the  same  time  the  extent  of  movement 
was  decreased  in  5  out  of  6  subjects  by  an  average  of  10.7  per  cent. 
Similarly  45  c.c.  alcohol  increased  the  latent  time  of  the  first  reflex 
9.5  per  cent,  and  decreased  the  extent  of  the  movement  28.5  per  cent. 
In  this  case  there  is  but  one  exception  out  of  6  subjects. 


72  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

(II)  In  the  case  of  the  psychopathic  subjects  the  average  results 
are  in  the  same  direction  as  those  of  the  normal  group.    The  12-hour 
experiments  with  the  normal  subjects  are  evenly  divided;  Subject  IX 
follows  the  average,  and  Subject  VI  opposes  it — consistent  with  his 
other  records. 

(III)  Since  an  increased  latency  and  a  decreased  amplitude  of  reflex 
movement  are  the  usual  physiological  indicators  of  decreased  reflex 
excitability,  we  must  conclude  that  in  the  case  of  the  protective 
lid-reflex,  as  in  that  of  the  patellar  reflex,  moderate  doses  of  alcohol 
tend  to  depress  the  excitability  of  the  reflex  arc.     In  the  case  of  the  lid- 
reflex,  where  the  data  include  the  effects  of  both  the  30  c.c.  and  the 
45  c.c.  doses,  the  average  depression  varies  directly  with  the  dose. 

(IV)  The  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  refractory  phase,  as  that  is  indi- 
cated by  the  reflex  response  to  the  second  stimulus,  is  less  uniform. 
After  the  30  c.c.  dose,  both  the  first  and  the  second  reflexes  are  affected 
in  the  same  direction.    The  percentile  decrease  in  amplitude  of  the 
second  reflex  response  is  conspicuously  high.     After  the  45  c.c.  dose, 
on  the  contrary,  the  latency  of  the  second  reflex  is  actually  decreased, 
while  the  amplitude  is  decreased,  but  less  than  half  what  it  was  after 
the  30  c.c.  dose.     The  refractory-phase  data  are  neither  regular  nor, 
since  they  represent  only  a  single  interval,  can  they  be  regarded  as  final. 
But  they  are  certainly  suggestive  and  seem  to  indicate  an  important 
lead  for  the  investigation  of  individual  differences  in  the  action  of 
drugs.     If,  as  we  assume,  the  refractory  phase  is  an  index  of  fatiga- 
bility,  the  enormous  individual  variation  in  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the 
refractory  phase  of  the  reflex  arc  is  evidence  that  the  discrepancy 
between  various  studies  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  fatigue  is  not  an 
accident  of  experimental  technique,  but  a  result  of  actual  individual 
differences.     In  the  second  place,  our  data  seem  to  indicate  that  while 
both  the  first  and  second  reflex  responses  are  depressed  in  extent  by 
both  doses  of  alcohol,  the  larger  dose  with  practically  every  subject  has 
a  less  depressing  effect  on  the  latency  of  the  second  response  than  the 
first.    The  hypothesis  suggests  itself  that  one  is  approaching  the  border- 
line between  refractory  phase  and  summation.     In  the  former,  response 
to  the  first  stimulation  lessens  response  to  the  second;  while  in  the 
latter,  the  effect  of  the  first  stimulus  operates  to  augment  the  response 
to  the  second.     Such  border-lines  or  critical  points  are  often  found  in 
the  systematic  variation  of  the  interval  between  the  first  and  second 
stimulation.     Moreover,  under  normal  conditions  it  regularly  occurs 
that,  when  from  some  unknown  cause  the  first  response  is  unusually 
slight,  the  second  may  be  higher  than  the  first.     It  appears  that  with 
the  larger  dose,  when  the  first  response  is  conspicuously  decreased,  the 
second  begins  to  be  less  depressed.    These  facts  suggest  the  further 
hypothesis  that  the  alcohol  depression  of  the  reflexes  is  more  like  a 
decrease  in  the  readiness  of  the  arc  than  a  real  paralysis.    They  suggest 


SIMPLEST    NEURAL  ARCS.  73 

the  possibility  that  the  alcoholic  depression  of  the  reflexes  which  follow 
its  ingestion  within  our  experimental  sessions  may  operate  to  conserve 
reflex  excitability.  They  emphasize  the  importance  of  experimenting 
over  much  longer  periods  than  was  provided  for  in  this  research.  If 
the  alcoholic  depression  of  excitability  may  operate  to  facilitate  recu- 
perative processes,  or  even  to  conserve  against  normal  fatigue,  it 
would  throw  new  light  on  the  gross  differences  in  clinical  accounts  of 
the  reflexes  of  alcoholics. 

(V)  Two  conspicuous  exceptions  to  the  generalization  that  alcohol 
tends  to  depress  the  lid  reflex  occur  in  Subjects  X  and  IV.  In  both 
these  subjects  there  is  an  unambiguous  change  of  sign  in  the  effect  of 
alcohol.  In  both  cases  the  reflex  latency  is  decreased  and  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  response  is  increased.  That  is,  in  both  these  subjects 
alcohol  facilitates  the  reflex. 

An  inspection  of  the  data  of  these  subjects  will  show  that  in  both 
cases  the  amplitude  of  the  normal  lid-reflex  is  conspicuously  small. 
The  extreme  amplitude  of  lid-movement  for  subjects  X  and  IV  is 
2.2  mm.  and  4  mm.  respectively.  And  these  values  are  found  only  hi 
the  very  first  periods  of  the  first  session.  In  other  periods  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  lid-movement  of  Subject  X  fails  to  reach  even  2  mm.  In 
no  series  of  this  subject,  moreover,  is  the  response  to  the  second  stimulus 
of  sufficient  amplitude  to  permit  measurement  of  its  latent  time.  In 
other  words,  in  response  to  both  the  first  and  the  second  stimulus  the  nor- 
mal lid-reflex  of  Subject  X  is  extremely  refractory.  This  was  naturally 
noticed  by  the  experimenters  during  the  preliminary  tests  and  led  to 
the  following  disclosures:  All  the  reflexes  of  Subject  X  are  either 
entirely  lacking  or  extraordinarily  refractory.  The  knee-jerk  could  not 
be  produced  regularly  without  reinforcement  by  hammers  up  to  100 
gm.  in  weight  falling  40  cm.  The  Achilles  reflex  was  present,  but  was 
apparently  as  refractory  as  the  knee-jerk.  The  toe-reflexes  were 
reported  to  be  entirely  lacking.  They  were  not  reinvestigated.  With 
special  reference  to  his  lid-reflex  to  noise,  Subject  X  reported  being 
thoroughly  accustomed  to  the  use  of  firearms  and  trained  to  keep  his 
eyes  open  as  he  shoots.  The  relative  importance  of  nature  and  training 
in  this  case  can  not  be  determined  from  the  data  at  hand.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  both  factors  are  present.  It  should  be  noted  in  passing 
that  both  Subjects  X  and  IV  differ  from  the  refractory  subject  pre- 
viously described  by  Dodge1  in  having  a  normal  reflex  latency.  Only 
the  amplitude  is  abnormal.  Much  the  same  is  true  of  the  lid-reflex 
of  Subject  IV  that  was  true  of  Subject  X.  In  this  subject,  however, 
the  refractoriness  of  the  lid-reflex  seems  to  be  entirely  artificial,  con- 
nected with  his  football  training.  Evidence  for  a  rapid  adaptation 
process  in  both  subjects  is  found  by  comparing  the  first  with  the  second 
period  on  the  first  normal  day  of  each. 

,  Zeitschr.  f.  allg.  Physiol.,  1910.  12,  p.  1. 


74  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

Taking  all  these  facts  into  account,  the  change  of  sign  in  the  effect 
of  alcohol  on  the  lid-reflex  of  these  two  subjects  demands  further  scru- 
tiny. It  is  conceivable,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  change  in  sign  may 
be  accidental.  But  the  data  seem  too  consistent  for  such  an  inter- 
pretation. One  must  assume  as  probable  that  the  facts  indicate  a 
real  exception  to  the  rule.  Any  evidence  to  the  contrary  must  bear 
the  burden  of  proof.  In  the  second  place,  it  should  not  be  overlooked 
that  the  normal  difference  values  for  Subject  X  are  based  on  a  single 
normal  day.  While  this  violated  both  the  requirements  of  our  statis- 
tical theory,  and  our  practice  in  other  cases,  it  seemed  unavoidable  in 
the  case  of  Subject  X,  who  could  ill  afford  time  for  further  experiments. 
In  the  case  of  Subject  IV  the  records  of  two  normal  days  are  available, 
but  the  relatively  small  amplitude  of  reflex  movement  on  the  second 
day,  combined  with  the  relatively  large  amplitude  in  the  first  period 
of  the  first  normal  day  tends  to  disturb  the  distribution  of  the  results 
in  the  same  direction  as  it  is  disturbed  in  the  case  of  Subject  X.  The 
effect  was  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  initial  sensitivity  to  the 
stimulus.  The  average  normal  difference  (av.  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  1-5) 
is  consequently  exaggerated,  and  the  expression  of  the  effect  of  alcohol 
(alcohol  difference  minus  normal  difference)  is  doubtless  too  high. 
Inspection  of  the  unelaborated  averages  in  the  case  of  both  Subjects 
X  and  IV  indicates  that  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  lid-reflex  was  in 
fact  not  quite  as  great  as  the  elaborated  differences  indicate.  It  may 
be  questioned,  then,  why  we  allow  the  misleading  difference  values  to 
stand.  Following  our  statistical  rule,  we  are  bound  to  include  all 
computed  values  in  the  total,  where  accidental  variations  such  as  these 
should  theoretically  tend  to  balance.  Our  special  interest  in  these 
individual  cases  is  not  because  of  any  effect  that  they  have  on  the 
general  tendency.  It  is  chiefly  the  question  whether  they  could  be 
interpreted  as  genuine  exceptional  cases  of  facilitation  of  a  reflex  by 
alcohol.  From  the  data  at  hand,  this  might  be  doubtful  in  the  case  of 
Subject  X.  It  seems  especially  clear,  however,  in  the  case  of  Subject 
IV,  where  there  is  a  conspicuous  increase  in  the  amplitude  of  the  reflex 
lid-movement  immediately  following  the  ingestion  of  alcohol.  In  both 
cases  one  might  suggest  a  third  hypothesis.  In  view  of  the  trained 
inhibition  of  the  reflex  in  both  subjects,  in  Subject  X  by  training  in 
shooting,  and  in  Subject  IV  by  training  in  football,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  trained  inhibitions  are  the  first  to  feel  the  effects  of  alcohol. 
There  are  analogies  enough  in  the  succeeding  chapters  to  give  this 
hypothesis  plausibility.  This  is  another  of  the  special  problems  that 
would  seem  to  deserve  direct  experimental  investigation. 

(VI)  The  total  result  of  all  these  data  indicate  that  as  in  the  patellar 
reflex  so  also  in  the  lid-reflex,  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  tend  to  depress 
the  excitability  of  the  reflex  arc. 


CHAPTER  III. 
EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  COMPLEX  NEURAL  ARCS. 

If  we  increase  the  complication  of  the  nervous  arc,  we  thereby  also 
increase  the  sources  of  normal  variability,  as  well  as  the  difficulties  of 
maintaining  the  similarity  of  experimental  conditions,  while  we  corre- 
spondingly decrease  the  probability  of  finding  a  normal  invariant  by 
any  available  statistical  method.  These  difficulties  incident  to  a  study 
of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  more  complex  arcs  are  doubly  unfortunate 
since  the  complex  arcs  represent  both  the  theoretical  and  the  practical 
climax  of  the  study  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  neuro-muscular 
processes  of  man.  The  simpler  nervous  arcs  can  be  studied  in  animals. 
Though  the  results  of  animal  experiments  in  this,  as  in  other  problems, 
may  not  be  uncritically  transferred  to  man,  yet  the  bulk  of  experimental 
evidence  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  lower  arcs  may  be  more  econom- 
ically obtained  from  animals.  The  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  more  com- 
plex arcs,  however,  constitutes  a  preeminently  human  problem. 

Increased  difficulties  do  not  lessen  scientific  obligations;  they  increase 
them.  They  make  greater  demands  on  technique,  which  at  any  par- 
ticular stage  of  technical  development  operate  as  limitations  of  the 
direction  of  profitable  laboratory  experiment.  Unfortunately,  there  is 
at  present  scant  probability  of  securing  experimental  data  of  scientific 
reliability  with  respect  to  the  action  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  on  the 
higher  mental  and  moral  processes.  In  our  attempt  to  study  system- 
atically related  processes,  we  have  chosen  such  elementary  processes 
as  were  likely  to  throw  the  most  light  on  the  more  complex.  We  must 
choose  such  relatively  complex  processes  as  are  related,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  the  elementary  processes  that  we  have  already  studied,  and 
on  the  other  hand,  to  the  higher  processes  that  are  beyond  our  experi- 
mental reach. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  on  reaction  processes  has  been  studied  chiefly 
with  respect  to  the  so-called  simple,  discrimination,  and  choice  reac- 
tions. These  studies  began  with  the  experiments  of  Exner,1  who  found 
that  alcohol  increased  the  duration  of  reaction  time.  Dietl  and  von 
Vintschgau2  made  a  comparative  study  of  the  effects  of  morphine,  coffee, 
and  wine,  and  found  that  alcohol  decreased  the  reaction  time.  Krae- 
pelin3  experimented  with  amylnitrite,  ether,  chloroform,  and  alcohol 
and  found  that  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  differed  from  ether  and  chlo- 
roform by  first  decreasing  and  then  increasing  the  reaction,  while 
Warren,4  in  a  paper  of  fine  critical  acumen  and  unexcelled  statistical 

'Exner,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1873,  7,  p.  601. 

2Dietl  and  von  Vintschgau,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1878,  16,  p.  316. 

3Kraepelin,  Phil.  Stud.,  1883,  1,  p.  573. 

4Warren,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1887,  8,  p.  311. 

75 


76  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

treatment  of  his  data,  studied  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  simple  reaction 
only,  and  found  "no  general  effect  of  any  definiteness." 

Pursuant  to  the  principles  of  selection  which  determined  our  choice 
of  measurable  processes  for  these  experiments,  we  felt  obliged  to  omit 
the  traditional  simple,  discrimination,  and  choice  reactions.  They 
seemed  unsatisfactory  to  us  partly  because  of  the  entire  artificiality  of 
the  usual  reactions  and  the  necessity  for  extensive  preliminary  practice 
before  the  reaction  times  have  any  real  significance,  partly  because  of 
the  uncontrollable  interplay  of  interest  and  attention  and  the  easy 
contamination  of  results  by  arbitrary  and  capricious,  conscious  control, 
and  partly  because  the  best  analyses  of  the  various  processes  show  such 
variability  of  the  possible  subjective  attitudes  to  the  experiment,  that 
one  can  be  sure  of  similar  experimental  conditions  only  in  subjects  of 
the  most  careful  training.  Even  in  trained  reactors  alcohol  might 
conceivably  modify  the  effect  of  training  rather  than  the  reaction  arc 
itself.  Finally,  variations  in  the  reaction  type,  such  as  motor  and 
sensory  reaction,  for  example,  may  modify  the  reaction  time  more  than 
moderate  doses  of  alcohol  have  been  found  to  do,  and  the  suspicion  of 
such  a  subjective  variation  can  not  be  objectively  verified. 

Practical  reactions  involving  complex  arcs,  which  are  thoroughly 
practiced  and  comparable  in  different  individuals  without  special 
training,  are  comparatively  few.  Of  those  which  might  be  found,  we 
chose  the  following  for  our  present  series,  partly  because  of  the  adequacy 
of  the  respective  techniques  and  our  knowledge  of  the  underlying 
processes,  and  partly  because  of  the  extensive  mental  systems  which 
they  sample: 

(1)  Eye-reaction  to  a  suddenly  appearing  peripheral  stimulus  is  a 
thoroughly  practiced  part  of  the  individual's  response  to  his  spatial 
environment.     It  samples  his  spatial  adjustments. 

(2)  Speech-reaction  to  visual  word  stimuli  is  a  thoroughly  practiced 
part  of  the  individual's  response  to  his  social  environment.     It  samples 
the  elaborate  mental  complex  of  the  speech  associations,  in  one  of  its 
primitive  and  most  firmly  established  phases. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  REACTION  OF  THE  EYE  TO  PERIPHERAL 
VISUAL  STIMULI. 

The  tendency  of  the  eyes  to  turn  to  a  suddenly  appearing  object  of 
interest,  whose  image  falls  outside  the  field  of  clear  vision,  is  probably 
the  most  universal  and  best  practiced  reaction  of  the  voluntary  muscles. 
In  normal  life  the  line  of  regard  probably  never  passes  through  the  same 
point  of  the  field  of  view  for  a  full  second  at  a  time.  The  records  of 
Judd1  and  his  collaborators  show  that  the  maintenance  of  strict  fixation 
is  of  still  shorter  duration.  Even  if  the  object  of  interest  remains  the 

'Judd.  McAllister,  and  Steele.  Yale  Psychological  Studies.  1905.  new  series,  1,  No.  1. 


COMPLEX  NEURAL  ARCS.  77 

same  for  a  longer  interval,  Dodge1  has  shown  that  physiological  causes 
are  constantly  operating  to  produce  lapsed  fixations  which  must  be 
corrected  by  frequent  eye-reactions.  If  these  primary  and  corrective 
reactions  have  occurred  on  the  average  of  once  a  second  since  birth, 
the  number  of  eye-reactions  of  our  normal  subjects  before  they  reached 
the  psychological  laboratory  was  enormous.  In  many  uses  of  the  eyes,  as 
in  reading  for  example,  eye-reactions  occur  on  the  average  at  more  than 
twice  that  rate.  Obviously,  the  eye-reaction  is  one  which  the  subject 
does  not  have  to  learn  arbitrarily  for  experimental  purposes,  like  lifting 
his  finger  in  reaction  to  a  noise  or  to  the  appearance  of  a  predetermined 
color.  It  is  a  natural  part  of  his  vital  equipment — a  necessary  pre- 
condition of  the  effective  visual  apprehension  of  his  environment.  But, 
as  a  rule,  one  is  unconscious  both  of  the  exact  stimulus  to  movement 
and  of  the  consequent  reaction  of  the  eye.  Under  such  circumstances 
there  can  be  no  distinguishable  motor  and  sensory  types.  In  view  of 
the  importance  of  eye-reaction  in  normal  life,  in  view  of  its  pre-experi- 
mental  practice,  and  its  independence  of  arbitrary  voluntary  inter- 
ference and  freedom  from  change  of  type,  the  eye-reaction  entirely 
satisfied  our  criteria  of  available  processes  for  measurements.  The  fact 
that  Diefendorf  and  Dodge2  secured  comparable  measurements  of  their 
eye-reactions  from  a  group  of  over  40  insane  patients  may  be  cited  as 
relevant  evidence  that  the  experiment  does  not  make  exorbitant 
demands  on  the  cooperation  of  the  subject.  Moreover,  the  elaboration 
of  the  motor  impulse  that  carries  the  eye  to  an  approximately  correct 
position  for  its  new  fixation  in  a  single  sweep  is  as  well  understood  as 
any  highly  coordinated  voluntary  act.  It  has  been  subjected  to  an 
extraordinary  amount  of  psychological  and  physiological  investigation. 
It  involves  at  least  no  arbitrarily  changing  factors.  Finally,  the  photo- 
graphic technique  for  recording  the  eye-reactions  is  simple,  dependable, 
and  accurate. 

METHODS  FOR  RECORDING  THE  EYE-REACTIONS. 

We  may  pass  over  without  discussion  the  earlier  non-graphic  method 
of  measuring  the  eye-reactions.  The  first  reliable  data  on  the  reaction 
of  the  eye  was  given  by  the  blind-spot  method.3  It  depended  on 
measuring  the  necessary  duration  of  a  light  which  fell  within  the  blind 
spot  while  the  eye  was  at  rest,  but  emerged  from  the  blind  spot  on  to  a 
sensitive  part  of  the  retina  when  the  eye  moved  to  see  a  suddenly 
appearing  peripheral  object.  If  this  light  was  seen  its  duration  must 
have  been  greater  than  the  latent  time  of  the  eye.  If  it  was  not  seen 
its  duration  was  less.  Such  an  experimental  method,  however  accurate, 
would  have  been  impractical  in  a  study  like  the  present.  It  is  too  sub- 

1Dodge,  An  Experimental  Study  of  Visual  Fixation.  Monograph  Supp.  of  the  Psychol. 
Review,  No.  35,  1907. 

"Diefendorf  and  Dodge,  Brain,  1908,  31,  p.  451. 
3Dodge,  Psychol.  Review,  1899,  6,  p.  477. 


78  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

jective,  and  makes  too  large  demands  on  the  skill  and  cooperation  of 
the  observer.  Objective  records  are  best  furnished  by  photographing 
the  movements  of  the  eye. 

Of  the  available  photographic  techniques,  the  kinematographic 
Chinese-white  method  of  Judd1  is  less  adapted  to  showing  time  changes 
in  the  eye-movements  than  Dodge's  continuous  records  by  reflection 
from  the  cornea.  The  latter  is  the  method  which  we  used  in  these 
experiments.  For  a  complete  description  of  its  technique  as  well  as 
for  a  full  discussion  of  its  theory,  we  must  refer  to  the  original  papers.2 

THEORY  OF  RECORDING  THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  EYE  BY  PHOTOGRAPHING  THE 
MOVEMENT  OF  A  REFLECTION  FROM  THE  CORNEA. 

The  theory  of  the  corneal  reflection  method,  briefly  stated,  is  that  a 
virtual  image  from  an  eccentrically  mounted  convex  spherical  mirror 
will  appear  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the  latter' s  rotation  when  the 
axis  of  rotation  lies  behind  the  center  of  curvature.  Within  a  small 
error  the  surface  of  the  normal  healthy  cornea  is  a  convex  spherical 
surface.  Its  optical  surface  is  as  exact  as  the  visual  process  which  it 
conditions.  If  the  radius  of  the  curvature  of  the  cornea  were  infini- 
tesimal, the  apparent  movement  of  the  corneal  reflection  would  equal 
the  sine  of  the  arc  of  eye-movement,  measured  on  a  great  circle  of  the 
eyeball.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  radius  of  the  cornea  were  equal  to 
the  radius  of  the  eyeball,  and  the  latter  rotated  on  its  center  of  curva- 
ture, the  corneal  reflection  would  appear  to  remain  stationary.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  neither  of  the  above  suppositions  is  true,  and  the  apparent 
movement  of  a  corneal  reflection  actually  lies  somewhere  between  zero 
and  the  sine  of  the  angular  movement  of  the  eyeball.  Since  the  average 
radius  of  curvature  of  the^  center  of  the  cornea  is  7.7  mm.  and  the  dis- 
tance from  its  apex  to  the  center  of  rotation  of  the  eye  averages  13.5 
mm.,  the  apparent  movement  of  a  distant  object  reflected  from  near  the 
center  of  the  cornea  will  be  slightly  less  than  one-half  the  actual  dis- 
placement of  the  apex  of  the  cornea,  but  always  in  the  same  direction. 
More  accurately,  under  the  above  conditions,  the  apparent  movement 

13  5—7  7     58 
of  the  corneal  reflection  will  be  — !1Q  .  '  =  ^-^  of  the  actual  movement 

lo.O  lo.O 

of  the  eye  for  small  arcs  (Dodge2) . 

REACTION  TIME  OF  THE  EYE. 

All  adequate  data  concerning  the  latent  tune  of  the  eye-reaction 
show  that  it  is  relatively  long.  According  to  the  most  extensive  photo- 
graphic data  hitherto  collected,  that  of  Diefendorf  and  Dodge,3  the 
normal  average  latency  of  the  eye-reactions  is  about  200  a. 

'Judd,  McAllister  aud  Steele,  Yale  Psychological  Studies,  1905,  new  series,  1,  No.  1. 
'Dodge,   An  Experimental  Study  of  Visual  Fixation.      Monograph  Supp.  of   the  Psychol. 
Review,  No.  36,  1907. 
'Diefendorf  and  Dodge,  Brain,  1908,  31.  p.  451. 


COMPLEX    NEURAL   ARCS.  79 

On  general  principles,  one  might  have  expected  that  a  reaction  which 
is  at  once  so  common  and  apparently  so  necessary  to  the  individual 
in  the  conduct  of  life  would  be  short.  But  it  should  also  be  noted  that 
each  ocular  reaction  to  peripheral  stimuli  involves  a  considerable  sen- 
sory-motor elaboration  of  the  stimulus.  The  adequate  reacting  eye- 
movement  is  not  only  in  a  definite  direction,  but  it  is  also  of  definite 
extent.  The  accuracy  of  the  eye-movement  does  not  now  concern  us, 
since  we  measure  in  reaction  time  only  the  beginning  of  the  reactive 
movement.  But  the  beginning  of  every  eye-movement  is  really  only 
the  initial  phase  of  a  movement  of  definite  direction  and  extent. 
Before  the  eye  starts  to  move,  the  elaboration  of  definite  motor  impulses 
for  that  particular  eye-movement  must  be  complete.  In  a  sense,  then, 
every  ocular  reaction  to  a  peripheral  stimulus  is  not  a  simple  reaction 
at  all,  but  an  individual's  adaptation  to  a  change  in  his  environment. 
In  the  past  history  of  reaction,  such  a  reaction  would  have  borne  the 
misleaoling  name  of  a  "  choice  reaction."  The  length  of  the  simple 
ocular  reaction  consequently  is  not  an  anomaly.  It  corresponds 
directly  with  a  relatively  complex  but  automatic  elaboration  of  the 
sensory-motor  impulse. 

APPARATUS. 

RECORDING  CAMERA. 

The  general  construction  of  the  apparatus  has  not  changed  since  it 
was  first  described  by  Dodge  and  Cline,1  though  many  of  the  details 
have  been  improved.  The  eye-movements  are  photographed  by  means 
of  an  enlarging  camera  of  fixed  length.  In  its  present  form  it  is  sub- 
stantially a  wooden  box,  4  feet  long  and  6.5  inches  square,  but  tapering 
at  the  lens  end.  The  lens  is  a  Bausch  and  Lomb  convertible  protar, 
series  vn,  No.  8.  Doubtless  other  lenses  would  answer  the  purpose, 
but  the  above  was  specifically  recommended  by  the  manufacturer  to 
meet  our  demands,  and  proved  satisfactory  after  some  disappointing 
experiences  with  other  types.  At  the  back  end  of  the  camera-box,  in 
place  of  the  ordinary  plate-holder,  is  a  falling-plate  recording-camera. 

The  mechanism  of  the  recording-camera2  is  exceedingly  simple  and 
particularly  adapted  for  psychological  work,  since  it  is  noiseless,  is 
quickly  changed  in  speed  from  200  mm.  per  second  to  less  than  1  mm. 
per  second,  and  reaches  its  maximum  velocity  in  the  first  centimeter  of 
fall.  It  is  daylight-loading  with  commercial  plate-holders,  and  may 
be  used  with  either  film,  plate,  or  paper,  according  to  the  available 
illumination.  Finally,  an  image  of  the  recording  light,  as  it  is  reflected 
from  the  cornea,  may  be  seen  on  the  focusing-glass  up  to  the  moment 
of  actual  recording.  This  last  is  an  absolutely  essential  feature  in  a 
camera  for  recording  the  eye-movements  of  untrained  subjects. 

^odge  and  Cline,  Psychol.  Review,  1901,  8,  p.  145. 
'Now  made  by  Spindler  and  Hoyer. 


80 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


Two  views  of  the  falling-plate  recording-camera  are  shown  in 
figures  10  and  11.  Figure  10  represents  the  back  of  the  instrument, 
showing  the  aperture  for  focusing,  a  plate-holder  partly  inserted,  the 
handle  of  the  valve,  and  a  stop  for  regulating  the  speed  of  the  plate. 
Figure  11  is  a  drawing  of  the  inner  construction  of  the  camera.  The 
aperture  for  inserting  the  plate-holder  when  the  box  is  closed  is  shown 
at  A.  A  shutter  closing  the  recorder  completely  from  the  outside  light 
is  shown  at  S.  The  oil  cylinder  to  control  the  fall  of  the  plate  is  indi- 
cated at  C.  A  plunger  which  is  not  represented  plays  in  the  cylinder. 


-PH 


Fio.  10.  Fio.  11. 

FIQ.  10. — Falling-plate  recording-camera. 
Fio.  11. — Falling-plate  recording-camera  (inner  construction). 

It  offers  only  slight  resistance  to  raising  the  plate,  but  prevents  its 
falling,  except  when  valve  V  is  open.  When  the  oil  is  forced  out  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  C  it  flows  back  through  a  by-pass  B-PC 
into  the  top  of  C.  The  speed  of  the  fall  is  determined  by  the  size  of 
the  opening  in  the  valve  V.  A  commercial  plate-holder  open  to  expose 
the  plate  is  shown  at  PH.  The  focusing  screen  is  shown  at  FG.  It 
is  in  the  same  plane  as  the  photographic  plate,  and  stands  in  front  of 
S  until  the  plate  begins  to  fall.  The  frame  which  holds  the  plate-holder 
runs  between  two  rails  with  V-shaped  furrows.  Oscillation  of  the 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS.  81 

plate  and  plate-holder  is  taken  up,  and  friction  rendered  relatively 
constant  by  a  spring  guide  on  one  side  of  the  frame. 

HEAD- REST. 

For  measurements  of  the  time  of  the  eye-movements,  a  relatively 
simple  head-rest  is  sufficient.  A  forehead-rest  above,  and  a  mouth-rest, 
or  rest  for  the  upper  teeth,  make  an  adequate  support  in  the  simplest 
possible  manner. 

RECORDING  LIGHT. 

The  best  sort  of  light  for  recording  the  eye-movements  is  an  arc  light, 
stopped  down  by  blue  glass.  In  the  following  experiments  we  used  three 
thicknesses  of  blue  glass.  The  consequent  light  is  a  soft  blue  for  vision, 
but  is  highly  actinic.  Even  direct  fixation  of  this  light  for  several  seconds 
produces  an  after-image  only  slightly  disturbing  to  vision.  Figure  1 
(page  31)  shows  the  general  orientation  of  the  source  of  light  and  the 
mirrors  which  reflected  it  to  the  eye  of  the  subject. 

EXPOSURE  APPARATUS  AND  STIMULUS. 

The  exposure  of  the  peripheral  stimulus  and  the  beginning  of  the 
record  were  synchronized  mechanically.  Both  were  produced  by  the 
movement  of  a  single  shutter,  shown  in  figure  1  to  the  subject's  right 
of  the  enlarging-camera. 

The  nature  of  the  peripheral  stimulus,  its  position,  and  the  instruc- 
tions to  the  subject  are  not  unimportant  in  the  eye-reaction  experiments. 
In  experiments  with  the  insane,  Diefendorf  and  Dodge1  used  digits  for 
the  peripheral  objects.  The  subjects  were  requested  to  read  these  as 
quickly  as  possible  after  exposure.  The  reaction  of  the  eyes  was  thus 
made  an  incident  in  the  process  of  reading.  The  task  was  a  familiar 
one  and  the  results  were  fairly  consistent  for  the  same  individual.  A 
similar  arrangement  was  adopted  in  the  present  series  of  experiments. 
Letters  were  used  instead  of  digits,  however.  They  were  typewritten 
on  small,  uniform  strips  of  paper,  which  could  be  inserted  in  the  object- 
holder  of  the  exposure  apparatus.  This  object-holder  was  movable 
in  a  horizontal  plane,  and  was  placed  at  a  different  one  of  six  possible 
positions  before  each  experiment.  The  order  of  these  positions  varied 
from  record  to  record  and  from  series  to  series.  But  it  was  the  same  on 
all  days,  alcohol  and  normal  alike. 

Some  variation  of  this  sort  about  the  prestimulating  fixation  mark  is 
necessary  to  prevent  anticipatory  reactions,  which  no  subject  can 
prevent  if  he  knows  exactly  where  the  object  is  to  appear.  It  is  doubt- 
ful, however,  if  our  arrangement  was  the  best  possible.  The  six  posi- 
tions are  probably  too  few.  There  is  some  apparent  tendency  for  the 
subject  to  guess  where  the  next  exposure  will  be.  Such  guesses  are  usu- 
ally clear  enough  on  the  records,  since  there  is  only  one  chance  in  six 
that  the  subject  will  guess  correctly,  and  an  incorrect  guess  will  result 

Diefendorf  and  Dodge,  Brain,  1908,  31,  p,  451. 


82  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF    ALCOHOL. 

in  characteristic  corrective  movements  of  the  eye.  Nevertheless,  the 
possibility  of  anticipatory  reactions  is  unfortunate.  They  tend  to 
increase  the  variability  of  the  results,  even  though  the  records  clearly 
show  their  existence.  Moreover,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  a 
corrective  movement  which  follows  a  guess  from  the  normal  corrective 
movement  which  follows  inadequate  coordination  of  the  eye-muscles. 
A  further  objection,  which  will  appear  in  the  discussion  of  the  results, 
is  the  surprisingly  large  effect  of  repetition.  It  would  probably  be 
better,  in  the  future,  to  instruct  the  subject  to  keep  his  eye  on  a  fixa- 
tion mark,  and  then  move  the  fixation  mark  in  one  direction  or  another 
as  a  stimulus  to  reaction. 

TIME  RECORDS. 

As  in  our  measurements  of  the  lid  reflex,  time  records  are  incor- 
porated directly  into  the  record  of  the  position  of  the  eye  by  interrupting 
the  recording  beam  of  light  with  the  vibrator  in  series  with  an  electric- 
ally driven  tuning-fork  of  50  d.  v.  per  second,  as  described  on  page  60. 
The  records  taken  in  this  manner  are  a  series  of  dashes.  Each  dash 
represents  0.01 ". 

EXPERIMENTAL  PROCEDURE. 

With  the  subject  seated  in  position  2,  with  the  vibrator  and  its  con- 
trolling tuning-fork  in  operation  and  the  arc  light  burning  steadily, 
the  subject  was  instructed  to  assume  the  position  for  eye-reaction. 
The  subject  then  pressed  his  head  gently  against  the  head-rest,  which 
had  been  adjusted  to  the  proper  elevation.  The  operator  inserted  the 
sensitive  plate  and  focused  the  camera.  Before  each  series  began,  the 
operator  repeated  the  standard  instruction,  "Look  at  the  fixation  mark, 
and  read  the  letters  as  soon  as  they  appear.  Don't  try  to  guess  where 
they  will  come."  About  one  second  after  the  signal,  "Ready, "was 
given,  the  photographic  plate  was  released  and  the  shutter  was  dropped. 
The  dropping  shutter  carried  with  it  the  prefixation  mark,  exposed  the 
letter,  and  simultaneously  permitted  the  recording  beam  of  blue  light 
to  reach  the  eye.  After  reaction  the  shutter  was  raised  and  the  expo- 
sure apparatus  was  reset  by  an  assistant.  The  operator  raised  the 
photographic  plate,  moved  the  camera  a  few  millimeters  to  the  left,  and 
repeated  the  experiment.  Five  records  were  made  in  succession  in 
each  period.  All  five  can  easily  be  recorded  on  the  same  plate  without 
danger  of  interference  or  fogging  the  plate.  At  the  end  of  the  day's 
work  the  plates  were  unloaded,  dated,  and  numbered.  The  assistant 
who  read  the  plates  numbered  the  curves  in  the  order  of  the  experi- 
ments, counted  the  dashes,  and  noted  the  corrective  movements. 

Figure  12  reproduces  an  illustrative  photographic  plate  containing 
five  records  of  eye-reactions.  Each  line  of  dashes  represents  an  eye- 
reaction.  The  beginning  of  each  line  is  coincident  with  the  exposure  of 
the  stimulus  to  move  the  eyes.  The  reaction  movement  of  the  eyes  is 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS.  83 

shown  by  the  first  irregularity  in  the  line.  The  number  of  dashes  from 
the  beginning  to  the  break  gives  the  latent  time  of  the  reaction  in  hun- 
dredths  of  a  second.  The  figure  is  arranged  to  read  from  left  to  right. 
The  left  of  the  figure  really  corresponds  to  the  bottom  of  the  photo- 
graphic record. 


FIG.  12. — Eye-reaction  records. 
RESULTS. 

The  data  for  the  eye-reactions  are  presented  in  table  7.  The  left-  and 
right-hand  divisions  of  the  page  contain  the  data  for  normal  and  alcohol 
experiments,  respectively.  In  each  half  the  first  column  gives  the 
subject,  date,  and  number  of  the  experimental  period.  The  second 
column  contains  the  average  latent  times  for  each  period  of  the  experi- 
mental session  and  the  general  average  of  the  session.  The  mean  varia- 
tion of  each  period  and  the  average  mean  variation  of  the  session  are 
given  in  the  next  column.  In  the  column  headed  Differences  are  entered 
at  the  left  the  differences  between  the  first  and  each  succeeding  period, 
according  to  the  formula,  D  =  l-2,  1-3,  1-^4,  etc.  Similarly,  the 
Differences  between  the  mean  variations  of  the  succeeding  periods 
are  entered  at  the  right. 


84 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  7. — Latency  of  the  eye-reactions. 
(Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

\ver- 
age. 

o 
o 

•3 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

>ubject,  date,  dose,  and 
number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

a 
o 
•3 
os 

•c 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver-1 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

> 

a 

s 

I 
Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Subject  II. 
Nov.  14,  1913: 
1  
2                

248 
272 
245 
236 
250 

2(>s 
202 
218 
203 
194 
199 
208 
205 

C) 
191 
201 
187 
193 

187 
179 
173 
179 

217 
185 
192 
193 
210 
199 

193 
160 
174 
190 
200 
183 

43 
44 
6 
29 
30 

33 
8 
25 
27 
41 
14 
35 
26 

O 
28 
23 
18 
23 

7 
7 
27 
14 

22 
17 
25 
14 
30 
22 

21 
22 
7 
20 
18 
18 

j 

-24    -  1 
+  3    +37 
+12    +14 
-  3   +17 

Subject  II. 
Nov.  20,  1913: 
Dose  A: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
Average  
Mar.  10,  1914: 
DoseB: 
1  
2    

O 
217 
215 
262 
242 
234 

*£01 
230 
249 
215 
231 

*S03 
186 
193 
194 
103 
181 
187 

*J77 
163 
190 
185 
179 

•177 

190 
181 
180 
184 

o 

9 
10 
29 
29 
19 

**5 
42 
21 
0 
21 

**8 
23 
5 
18 
18 
18 
16 

*15 
20 
12 
12 
15 

»/7 
11 
16 
0 
9 

-29 
-  48 
-  14 
-  30 

-i? 

+  4 
+25 

+  4 

3                    

4  
Average  

Mar.  17,  1914: 
1 

2 

+   G 
-10 
+  5 
+14 
+  9 
0 
+  4 

-io 

+  4 
-  3 

+Y 

+14 
+11 

+32' 
+25 
+24 
+  7 
+22 

+25 
+  8 
+  6 
-  8 
+19 
-  2 
+  8 

+"s" 
+10 
+  7 

0 
-20 
-10 

+Y 

-  3 
+  8 
-  8 
+  0.5 

3  

4 

3  
4  
Average  

Subject  III. 
Jan.  26,  1914: 
Dose  A: 

1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
6 

5 

6  
7    

Average  

Subject  III. 
Jan.  19,  1914: 
1 

2 

3  
4  
Average  

Mar.  9,  1914: 
1  
2  
3                    .... 

+  17 
+  10 
+     0 
+  20 
+  22 
+  16 

+"ii' 

-  13 
-     8 
-    2 

+  3 
+21 
+  8 
+  8 
+  8 
+10 

-5 
+  3 
+  3 
+0.3 

Average  
Feb.  9.  1914: 
DoseB: 

1  
2  
3  
4  
Average  

Subject  IV. 
Feb.  13,  1914: 
DoseB:4 
1  
2 

Average  

Subject  IV. 
Jan.  30,  1914: 
1               .... 

2  
3           .... 

-  13 

A 

-     3 
-    7 

+  6 
+  1 
+17 
+  8 

4               .    . 

3 

5 

4  
Average  

Average  
Mar.  17,  1914: 
1 

2 

+33 
+19 
+  3 
-  7 
+12 

-  1 
+14 
+  1 
+  3 

+  4 

3 

4  
5 

Average  

Records  illegible. 

*The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
was  given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 

'Missing.  'Experiment  with  dose  A  was  accidentally  omitted. 


COMPLEX    NEURAL   ARCS. 


85 


TABLE  7. — Latency  of  the  eye-reactions — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean  variation. 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

lubject,  date,  dose,  and 
number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean  variation. 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Subject  VI. 
Oct.  22,  1913: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
6  
Average  

1%  hr.  experiment. 
Jan.  1,  1914: 
1  
2                   ... 

C) 
200 
197 
192 
227 
230 
209 

230 
184 
170 
212 
200 
175 
197 
196 
222 
175 
1% 

219 
208 
215 
219 
228 
218 

193 
190 
239 
196 
204 

0) 
20 
12 
30 
26 
20 
22 

20 
14 
17 
44 
22 
30 
29 
19 
9 
23 
23 

13 
14 
14 
33 
12 
17 

14 
20 
36 
21 
23 

Subject  VI. 
Oct.  29,  1913: 
Dose  A: 

1  
2  
3  
4  
5 

166 
145 
147 
(3) 
158 
190 
159 

*185 
180 
199 
195 
200 
255 
206 

*176 
169 
199 
223 
171 
185 
171 
189 
190 
198 
194 
189 

*223 
195 
197 
214 
192 
232 
206 

Z199 
191 
242 
241 
225 

23 
22 
10 
O 
28 
35 
24 

*20 
25 
27 
25 
16 
45 
28 

2/7 

33 
43 
34 
31 
20 
34 
9 
42 
38 
25 
31 

*16 
8 
9 
11 
22 
22 
14 

*24 
39 
21 
45 
35 

+  '2l' 
+  19 

+  "s 

-  24 
+    6 

+  "5" 
-   14 
-  10 
-   15 
-  75 
-  22 

+"'7' 
-  23 
-  47 
+     5 
-     9 
+     5 
-  13 
-  14 
-  22 
-  18 
-  13 

+"2S' 
+  26 
+     9 
+  31 
-     9 
+  17 

+  'i" 

+13 

-'5" 
-12 
-  0.7 

-'5" 
-  7 
-  5 
+  4 
-  25 
-  8 

-16 
-26 
-17 
-14 
-  3 
-17 
+  8 
-25 
-21 
-  8 
-14 

+"s" 

+  7 
+  5 
-  6 
-  6 
+  1.6 

+  S' 
+  8 
-27 
-30 
-11 

+46' 
+60 
+18 
+30 
+55 
+33 
+34 
+  8 
+55 
+38 

+  's" 

-10 
-  6 
0 
-  2 

+"e" 

+  3 
-24 
-  2 
-10 
-  9 
+  1 
+11 
-  3 
-  3 

6  
Average  
Jan.  22,  1914: 
DoseB: 
1  
2 
3.  ............. 
4  
5  
6 

Average  

12  hr.  experiment. 
Jan.  2,  1914: 
Dose  C: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
6  

3  
4  
5  
6  
7  
8  
9  
10  
Average  

Subject  VII. 
Oct.  21,  1913: 
1  
2                   .    . 

7  
8 

9  
10  
11 

Average  

Subject  VII. 
Oct.  28,  1913: 
Dose  A: 
1  
2 

+11 
+  4 
0 
-  9 
+  1 

—      1 

-  1 
-20 
+  1 
-  5 

3 

4  
5 

3  
4 

Average  

Mar.  20,  1914: 
1  
2           .... 

5  

6  
Average  
Mar.  13,  1914: 
Dose  B: 
1  
2 

+  3 
-46 
-  3 
-15 

-  6 
-22 
-  7 
-12 

+     8 
-  43 
-  42 
-  26 

-15 
+  3 
-21 
-11 

4  
Average  

3 

4  
Average  

Records  illegible. 

2The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
was  given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 
3No  record. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  7. — Latency  of  the  eye-reactions — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

d 

Difference 

d 

Difference 

1 

(1-2,  1-3, 

•3 

(1-2,  1-3, 

Subject,  date,  and     lAver 

•§ 

etc.). 

Subject,  date,  dose,  anc 

Aver- 

'S 

etc.). 

number  of  period. 

age. 

> 

1 

Aver 

Mean 

varia- 

number of  period. 

age. 

i 

Aver- 

Mean 
varia- 

age. 

tion. 

age. 

tion. 

Subject  IX. 

Subject  IX. 

Oct.  27,  1913: 

Nov.  3,  1913: 

1  

286 

74 

Dose  A: 

2  

190 

34 

+96 

+40 

1  

*S45  \178 

3  

198 

18 

+88 

+56 

2  

256 

87 

+  89 

-9 

4  

201 

21 

+86 

+53 

3  

197 

16 

+148 

+62 

5  

204 

40 

+82 

+34 

4  

181 

29 

+  164 

+49 

Average  

216 

37 

+88 

+46 

5  

202 

16 

+143 

+62 

Average  

209 

37 

+136 

+41 

Jan.  21,  1914: 

DoseB: 

1  

1161 

lss 

2  

156 

15 

+"'5' 

+  18 

3  

201 

9 

-  40 

+24 

4  

202 

20 

-  41 

+13 

5  

170 

17 

-     9 

+  16 

6  

182 

16 

-  21 

+17 

Average  

182 

15 

-  21 

+18 

19  hr.  experiment. 

12  hr.  experiment. 

Dec.  22.  1913: 

Dec.  23,  1913: 

1  

(*) 

(*) 

Dose  C: 

2  

164 

5 

1167 

118 

3  

180 

20 

-16 

-15 

2  

180 

35 

-13 

-17 

4  

167 

22 

-  3 

-17 

3  

184 

17 

-  17 

-f.  i 

5  

195 

10 

—31 

—  5 

4 

173 

24 

—     6 

—  6 

6  

O 

O 

5  

162 

17 

+     5 

+  1 

7  

187 

15 

-23 

-io 

6  

160 

10 

+     7 

+  8 

8  

167 

11 

-  3 

-  6 

7  

198 

41 

—  31 

—23 

9  

187 

4 

-23 

+  1 

8  

213 

12 

—  46 

+  6 

10 

183 

31 

—  19 

—26 

9  

220 

20 

—  53 

_   2 

Average  

179 

15 

-17 

-11 

193 

22 

-  26 

-  4 

11  '.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

(*) 

0 

Average  

187 

22 

-20 

'-'4" 

Subject  X. 

Subject  X. 

Mar.  11,  1914: 

Mar.  18.  1914: 

1  

264 

59 

Dose  A: 

2  

218 

16 

+36 

+43 

l!840 

1#£ 

3  

222 

27 

+32 

+32 

2  

230 

23 

+  10 

+  10 

4  

234 

21 

+20 

+38 

3  

327 

31 

-  87 

+  1 

6  

225 

12 

+29 

+47 

4  

216 

4 

+  24 

+28 

6  

199 

6 

+55 

+53 

5 

235 

25 

+     5 

+  7 

Average  

225 

23 

+34 

+43 

6  

206 

11 

+  34 

+21 

Average  

243 

19 

-    3 

+13 

'The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
was  given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 
•Records  illegible. 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS. 


87 


TABLE  7. — Latency  of  the  eye-reactions — Continued. 

[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 

PSYCHOPATHIC  SUBJECTS. 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

d 

Difference 

a 

Difference 

•J 

(1-2,  1-3, 

o 
•.5 

(1-2,  1-3, 

Subject,  date,  and 

Aver- 

2 

etc.). 

Subject,  date,  dose,  and 

Aver- 

.5 

h 

etc.). 

number  of  period. 

age. 

> 

Aver- 

Mean 
varia- 

number of  period. 

age. 

> 
§ 

Aver- 

Mean 
varia- 

i 

age. 

tion. 

i 

age. 

tion. 

Subject  XI. 

Subject  XI. 

Mar.  26,  1914: 

Mar.  27,  1914: 

1  

220 

23 

Dose  A: 

2 

279 

69 

-59 

-46 

1  

1221 

1H9 

3  

251 

27 

-31 

—  4 

2 

222 

51 

J 

—22 

Average  

250 

39 

-45 

-25 

3  

259 

19 

-  38 

+10 

4  

212 

35 

+     9 

-  6 

Average  

231 

35 

-  10 

-  6 

Mar.  28,  1914: 

1   

242 

21 

2  

211 

13 

+31 

+"s" 

3  

205 

17 

+37 

+  4 

Average  

219 

17 

+34 

+  6 

Subject  XII. 

Subject  XII. 

Apr.  2,  1914: 

Apr.  3,  1914: 

1  

178 

28 

Dose  A: 

2  

162 

19 

+ie' 

+"9" 

1  

1fO£ 

188 

3  

150 

24 

+28 

+  4 

2  

165 

25 

+  '37' 

+"3" 

4  

187 

30 

-  9 

-  2 

3  

182 

15 

+  20 

+13 

5  

141 

22 

+37 

+  6 

4  

154 

25 

+  48 

+  3 

Average  

164 

25 

+18 

+  4 

5  

173 

32 

+  29 

-  4 

Average  

168 

24 

+  33 

+  4 

Apr.  4,  1914: 

1  

178 

49 

2  

164 

19 

+14 

+30' 

3  

209 

43 

-31 

+  6 

Average  

184 

37 

-  8 

+18 

Subject  XIV. 

Subject  XIV. 

Apr.  23,  1914: 

Apr.  24,  1914: 

1  

240 

30 

Dose  A: 

2   

222 

2 

+18 

+28 

lt!8 

137 

3  

202 

36 

+38 

-  6 

2...  

190 

24 

+"22" 

+ia" 

4  

238 

29 

+  2 

+  1 

3  

215 

20 

-     3 

+17 

225 

24 

+19 

+  8 

4 

196 

23 

+  16 

+14 

verage  

5  

198 

8 

+  14 

+29 

6 

203 

12 

+     9 

+25 

Average  

200 

17 

+  12 

+20 

Apr.  25,  1914: 

1  

195 

40 

2  

200 

12 

-5 

-28 

Average  

197 

26 

*The  values  for  the  first  period  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
rae  given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


TABUS  8.— Summary  of  the  latent  time  of  the  eye-reactions. 
[Values  are  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

1 

II 

Dose  A.1                       Dose  B. 

Subject. 

Aver- 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

age 
differ- 
ence. 

Aver- 
age. 

j 
Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age 
differ- 
ence. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age 
differ- 
ence. 

Normal  subjects: 

II  

250 

30 

205 

26 

0 

234 

19 

231 

21 

-30 

Ill  

193 

23 

179 

14 

+  4 

187 

16 

+  16 

179 

15 

-  2 

IV  

199 

22 

183 

18 

+17 

184 

9 

-  7 

VI  

209 

22 

-11 

159 

24 

"+"&' 

206 

28 

-22 

VII  

218 

17 

204 

23 

-  7 

206 

14 

+  17 

225 

35 

-26 

IX  

216 

37 

+88 

209 

37 

+136 

182 

15 

-21 

X  

225 

23 

+34 

243 

19 

-     3 

Average  .  .  . 

216       25    !  193 

20 

206 

21 

20i 

20 

12  hr.  ex  peri  - 

ments: 

VI... 

196 

23 

+38 

489 

>31 

l-   13 

ix  

179 

15 

-17 

•187 

122 

*-  20 

Average  .  .  . 

187 

19 

'188 

>26 

Psychopathic 

subjects: 

XI  

250 

39 

219 

17 

-  5 

231 

35 

-   10 

XII  

164 

25 

184 

37 

+  5 

168 

24 

+  33 

XIV  

225       24 

197 

26 

+  7 

200 

17 

+  12 

Average  .  .  . 

213 

29 

200 

27 

199 

25 

i 

•Dose  C  was  used  in  the  12-hour  experiments. 

TABLE  9. — Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  latent  time  of  the  eye-reactions. 
[Average  values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject. 

Effect  as  shown  in  average 
differences.1 

Effect  as  shown  in  percentile 
differences.1 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

DoseC. 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

DoseC. 

Normal  subjects: 
II  
III. 

rv... 

VI.. 
VII. 
IX... 
X  
Average  
12  hr.  experiments: 
VI  
IX  
Average  
Psychopathic  subjects: 
XI  
XII  
XIV  

a 

"+12" 

a 
-  30 
-     0 
-  24 

<r 

p.  ct. 

p.  ct. 
-13.7 
-  3.2 
-12.2 
-  6.0 
-  9.3 
-49.0 

-15^6 

p.  ct. 

-25.1 
-   1.8 
-13.4 



+  6.2 

+17 
+24 
+48 
-37 
+13 

-   11 
-  19 
-109 

+  9.3 
+  11.1 
+  15.2 
-15.0 
+  5.4 

-  33 

-51 

-  3 

-27 

-  5 

+28 
+  5 

—  2  2 

+15.0 
+  2.3 
+  5.0 

Average  

+  9 

'Effect  on  the  average  difference  equals  (av.  1-2,  1-3.  1-4,  etc.,  alcohol)  minus  (av.  1-2,  1-3, 
1-4,  etc.,  normal). 

•Effect  on  the  percentile  difference  equals  average  difference  divided  by  average  of  the  cor- 
responding first  periods. 


COMPLEX    NEURAL   ARCS.  89 

SUMMAKY    OF    EYE-REACTION    DATA. 

A  summary  of  the  latent  time  of  the  eye-reactions,  as  well  as  the 
average  differences,  is  given  in  table  8.  The  first  and  second  normal 
days  are  shown  on  the  left,  the  two  alcohol  days  on  the  right.  The 
other  headings  are  self-explanatory. 

A  summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  eye-reactions  is  given  in 
table  9,  calculated  from  the  differences.  On  the  left  the  effect  is  shown 
in  the  units  of  measurement.  On  the  right  it  is  shown  in  percentiles. 

VARIABILITY  OF  THE  MEASUREMENTS. 

Inspection  of  the  averages  and  mean  variations  of  table  8  will  throw 
considerable  light  on  the  reliability  of  this  group  of  measurements: 
(1)  In  the  first  place,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  average  mean  variation 
of  eye-reaction  is  about  12  per  cent  of  the  average  of  the  measurements. 
In  interpreting  this  variability  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  with 
the  exception  of  Subject  VI,  none  of  the  subjects  had  ever  served  in  sim- 
ilar experiments.  We  regard  it  as  a  conspicuous  service  of  the  eye- 
reactions  that  they  furnished  us  comparable  "  choice  reaction"  data 
with  an  average  mean  variation  of  approximately  12  per  cent  from  a 
heterogeneous  group  of  subjects  without  previous  training.  No  other 
"choice  reaction"  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is  so  uniformly  avail- 
able. (2)  As  appears  from  the  table  of  average  reactions,  there  is  a 
slight  but  regular  improvement  in  the  average  reaction  time  of  all 
subjects  as  the  experiments  progress.  The  averages  show  a  total 
reduction  of  23  a  for  the  main  group  and  13<r  for  the  psychopathic 
group  between  the  first  and  last  normal  days.  The  only  exception  is 
the  second  normal  day  of  Subject  XII,  which  prevents  the  average  of 
the  psychopathic  subjects  from  showing  any  advantage  of  repetition  on 
the  second  normal  day  as  compared  with  the  alcohol  day.  Notwith- 
standing this  exception,  the  facts  are  unequivocal.  The  average  latent 
time  of  the  eye-reactions  decreases  by  an  average  of  about  1 1  per  cent 
from  the  first  to  the  last  experimental  day  as  a  result  of  repetition. 
A  regular  practice  effect  of  11  per  cent  between  the  first  and  last  quar- 
ters of  120  measurements  clearly  shows  that  the  process  was  not  ini- 
tially as  thoroughly  practiced  as  we  had  expected,  i.e.,  to  the  degree  that 
the  practice  effect  of  the  experimental  sessions  would  be  insignificant. 
The  question  of  the  origin  of  the  effect  of  repetition  in  the  case  of  the 
supposed  thoroughly  practiced  eye-reaction,  and  the  possibility  of 
adopting  suitable  experimental  measures  to  reduce  it,  will  be  taken  up 
again  in  the  summary,  Chapter  IX. 

We  would  point  out  here  that,  notwithstanding  the  obvious  effect 
of  repetition,  our  normal  base-line  is  adequate  for  any  interpretation 
of  the  effect  of  alcohol.  The  experimental  as  well  as  the  statistical 
procedure  of  these  experiments  was  especially  planned  for  just  such 
exigencies. 


90  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

EFFECT  OF  AIXX>HOL  ON  TH»  EYE-REACTION. 

Following  our  regular  procedure  of  calculating  the  effects  of  alcohol 
from  the  differences  between  the  normal  of  the  day  and  subsequent 
periods,  it  appears  from  table  9  that  the  average  effect  of  the  smaller 
dose  of  alcohol  (dose  A)  is  to  decrease  the  reaction  time  in  four  cases  out 
of  five,  amounting  to  an  average  change  of  13  a-  or  5.4  per  cent.  The 
effect  of  the  larger  dose  of  alcohol  (dose  B),  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  length- 
ening of  the  reaction  time,  in  all  six  subjects,  by  33  a,  or  15.6  per  cent. 
The  psychopathic  subjects  show  a  slight  (5  per  cent)  decrease  of  latency 
like  the  main  group  after  similar  dosage.  The  effect  of  the  12-hour 
experiments  (dose  C)  is  an  increase  of  the  reaction  time  in  both  subjects, 
but  the  increase  in  the  case  of  Subject  IX  is  too  slight  to  be  significant. 

In  general  one  must  conclude  that  a  dose  of  45  c.c.  of  alcohol  clearly 
increases  the  latency  of  the  eye-reactions.  The  effect  of  30  c.c.,  on 
the  contrary,  seems  to  be  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  corresponds 
rather  closely  with  the  results  of  the  simple  reaction  experiments  by 
Kraepelin.  In  conjunction  with  the  data  from  other  sources,  we  shall 
discuss  in  the  general  summary  (Chapter  IX)  whether  or  not  our  data 
warrant  the  conclusion  that  the  two  doses  of  alcohol  really  affect  the 
complex  nervous  arc  which  is  involved  in  eye-reaction  in  opposite  ways. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  REACTION-TIME  IN  READING 
ISOLATED  WORDS. 

There  are  very  few  mental  operations  which  are  comparable  with  the 
reflexes  in  uniformity;  very  few  that  may  be  assumed  to  be  even  approx- 
imately equally  practiced  in  the  experience  of  different  individuals. 
Probably  the  most  nearly  common  element  in  the  intellectual  experience 
of  normal  individuals  in  literate  communities  is  the  association  between 
visual,  auditory,  and  motor  symbols  in  language  and  the  associations  of 
elementary  mathematics. 

The  computation  experiments  of  Kraepelin  and  his  pupils  make  use 
of  this  community  of  elementary  mathematical  experience  to  measure 
the  effect  of  alcohol  on  controlled  associations.  But  common  experi- 
ence, as  well  as  laboratory  experiment,  makes  it  obvious  that  even 
in  the  associations  of  elementary  mathematics  there  are  gross  differ- 
ences in  the  facility  with  which  different  individuals  react  to  different 
combinations.  Even  in  the  same  subject,  provided  he  is  not  specially 
practiced,  the  difficulty  of  relatively  simple  mathematical  tasks  may  vary 
enormously.  For  example,  the  multiplication  of  8X5  is  commonly  a 
readier  association  than  that  of  8X7.  Similarly  9+9  is  commonly 
readier  than  7+6.  The  practice  effects  are,  moreover,  often  enormous. 

Compared  to  even  the  simpler  association  tasks  of  mental  arithmetic, 
the  association  process  which  is  involved  in  reading  short,  familiar 
words  seems  easy  to  most  subjects.  For  the  average  literate  it  is  also 
probably  better  practiced.  Reading  should  consequently  be  a  reaction 


COMPLEX  NEURAL  ARCS.  91 

in  which  the  different  individuals  are  comparable  with  each  other  and 
relatively  stable  with  respect  to  the  effect  of  repetition.  It  may  be 
objected  that  actual  articulation  in  reading  is  less  common  in  adults 
than  silent  reading.  While  that  is  undoubtedly  true,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  restraint  of  articulation  is  a  refinement  of  develop- 
ment. Reading  was  learned  by  actual  articulation.  And  the  passing 
of  silent  reading  into  articulation  occurs  on  the  least  provocation  and 
in  the  aggregate  relatively  often.  In  any  event,  the  arousal  of  the 
motor-acoustic  residua  is  practically  a  universal  if  not  a  necessary 
accompaniment  to  the  process  of  understanding  the  printed  word.  The 
nervous  arcs  which  are  involved  in  the  articulation  of  familiar  words 
are  relatively  complex,  but  they  are  relatively  constant  and  thoroughly 
practiced.  Of  all  the  controlled  associations,  reading  is  probably  the 
most  nearly  immediate  and  universally  practiced.  Even  in  a  mathe- 
matical reaction  the  first  associate  which  is  aroused  by  digits,  7  times 
8,  for  example,  is  probably  not  their  multiple,  but  the  auditory-motor 
associate  which  is  involved  in  reading  them. 

Other  things  being  equal,  reading  simple  words  appeared  to  satisfy 
our  criteria  of  a  satisfactory  experimental  process  better  than  adding 
or  any  other  mathematical  task.  Furthermore,  the  basal  psychology  of 
the  reading  process  has  been  subject  to  much  more  satisfactory  analysis 
than  the  mathematical  processes.  The  adequate  reaction  to  visual 
verbal  stimuli  is  about  the  best  understood  of  all  associations.  It  has 
been  experimentally  studied  in  connection  with  a  considerable  variety 
of  mental  processes,  both  normal  and  abnormal.  It  has  furnished 
material  for  a  large  number  of  investigations  in  the  psychology  of 
perception  and  attention.  The  conditions  which  determine  satis- 
factory experimentation  are  consequently  thoroughly  known  and  the 
criteria  of  a  satisfactory  technique  are  entirely  familiar  to  the  experi- 
mental psychologist.  In  all  these  respects,  the  inclusion  of  word-reac- 
tion measurements  in  our  series  has  been  justified.  In  none  of  the 
measurements,  not  even  in  the  reflexes,  have  we  found  a  lower  percent- 
age of  variation  within  a  series  of  observations.  Notwithstanding 
the  differences  between  the  words,  the  mean  variation  in  a  series  of 
24  is  about  7  per  cent  of  the  reaction  time.  The  same  series  of  24  four- 
letter  English  words  was  reacted  to  in  all  our  experiments  by  all  our 
subjects,  regular  and  control  subjects  alike. 

EXPOSURE  APPARATUS. 

The  variety  of  possible  instruments  for  giving  visual  stimuli  under 
experimental  conditions  is  practically  limitless.  Equally  limitless  are 
the  experimental  conditions  which  they  may  be  required  to  satisfy. 
There  is  probably  no  one  best  universal  exposure  apparatus.  No  such 
instrument  is  equally  good  for  all  purposes.  Any  instrument  is  good  if 
it  satisfies  the  specific  experimental  demands  of  the  occasion.  Between 


92  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

approximately  equally  good  instruments  there  maybe  a  further  criterion 
of  expediency.  Experimental  psychologists  have  spent,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, an  unduly  large  amount  of  time  in  developing  various  types  of 
exposure  apparatus  to  satisfy  various  experimental  demands.  The 
excuse  for  using  a  new  form  in  these  experiments  was  a  new  combination 
of  experimental  demands  and  expediency. 

The  most  generally  recognized  criteria  of  a  satisfactory  exposure  appa- 
ratus1 relate  to  the  type  called  the  tachistoscope.  But  the  demand 
for  tachistoscopic  exposure,  that  is,  for  the  most  rapid  possible  exposure, 
is  certainly  not  universal.  It  has  probably  been  overvalued  where  it  is 
most  useful,  that  is,  in  the  effort  to  isolate  a  single  act  of  vision.  It 
is  entirely  possible  to  produce  experimental  circumstances  in  which 
extreme  shortness  of  exposure  and  consequent  uncontrolled  adequacy 
of  exposure  may  be  quite  undesirable.  This  is  doubtless  the  case  in 
memory  experiments.  We  believe  that  it  is  also  the  case  in  all  associa- 
tion experiments,  where  the  first  condition  of  a  satisfactory  association 
process  would  seem  to  be  the  least  practicable  interference  with  the 
normal  and  adequate  perception  of  the  stimulus  word. 

If  it  is  true  hi  reading,  as  the  evidence  seems  to  point,  that  the  normal 
visual  perception  of  a  word  is  a  complex  of  stimulation  and  inhibition 
processes  which  may  be  more  or  less  separated  in  time  (Dodge,2  pp. 
55-60),  it  would  seem  that  the  most  satisfactory  condition  for  the  read- 
ing reaction  would  be  to  combine  all  the  processes  in  the  same  instant, 
as  far  as  practicable,  and  to  increase  to  a  maximum  the  visual  controls 
that  ordinarily  complete  the  process  which  is  begun  in  the  prefixational 
perception  of  a  word.  In  other  words,  the  stimulus  word  of  adequate 
size  should  appear  suddenly,  after  a  signal,  all  at  once,  in  the  field  of 
clear  vision,  with  provision  for  satisfactory  adaptations  to  distance  and 
illumination.  After  adequate  exposure  the  persistence  of  the  stimulus 
word  has  relatively  little  or  no  significance.  It  may  serve  a  useful 
function  as  a  control  for  misperception. 

Our  experimental  requirements  distinctly  excluded  the  tachistoscope 
type  of  apparatus.  Our  positive  instrumental  demands  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows:  (1)  In  order  to  exclude  disturbing  pre-judgments 
from  partial  visual  exposure,  and  to  give  a  definite  amount  of  total 
exposure,  the  exposure  should  be  rigidly  simultaneous  and  as  nearly 
instantaneous  as  possible  (cf.  Erdmann  and  Dodge3).  (2)  To  facil- 
itate the  calculation  of  latency,  the  moment  of  total  exposure  should  be 
related  in  some  constant  way  to  a  registrable  process.  (3)  The  obvi- 
ous visual  requirements  of  adaptation  to  illumination  and  to  the  place 
of  exposure  in  all  dimensions  must  not  be  transgressed.  (4)  Since  the 

'Whipplc,  Mental  and  Physical  Testa,  Baltimore,  1910,  p.  223. 

*Dodge,  An  Experimental  Study  of  Visual  Fixation.    Monograph  Supp.  of  thePsychol.  Review, 
No.  35,  1907. 
'Erdmann  and  Dodge.  Psychologische  Untersuchungen  Qber  das  Leaen,  Halle.  1898.  p.  94 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS.  93 

same  experimental  conditions  must  be  used  for  a  large  variety  of  sub- 
jects with  very  different  natural  adaptability,  the  demands  on  the  sub- 
ject must  be  definite  and  simple.  Disturbing  influences  must  be  reduced 
where  they  can  not  be  eliminated.  Conditions  must  be  as  natural  as 
possible.  (5)  Finally,  since  we  aimed  to  concentrate  apparatus  and  tech- 
nique so  that  the  different  experiments  should  follow  with  minunum  loss 
of  time  and  a  minimum  change  in  the  position  of  the  subject,  elaborate 
or  bulky  apparatus  was  inexpedient. 

The  instrument  which  was  devised  to  meet  these  conditions  was  not 
an  accident.  Back  of  it  are  some  years  of  effort  to  produce  the  perfect 
exposure  of  a  word  without  eye-movements,  which  accurately  dupli- 
cates a  normal  fixation  in  reading.  The  instrument  is  in  no  sense  a 
tachistoscope.  It  makes  no  pretense  to  satisfy  all  the  desiderata  of 
a  perfect  exposure  apparatus.  It  does  satisfy  our  particular  experi- 
mental needs  without  serious  defects.  One  new  principle  involved  in  its 
construction  will  doubtless  be  of  general  use,  namely,  the  pendulum 
stop.  It  is  a  device  to  stop  rapid  movements  of  an  object  suddenly, 
but  with  as  little  noise  and  as  little  vibration  as  is  possible. 

In  type,  our  exposure  apparatus  is  characterized  by  a  rapid  move- 
ment of  the  visual  field  like  the  Erdmann-Dodge1  gravity  tachistoscope 
or  the  commercial  models  of  Ranschburg,  Wirth,  and  Rupp  memory 
apparatus,  or  the  disk  instrument  of  Dodge.2  The  principle  of  this 
type  of  apparatus  is  to  place  the  fixation  marks  and  the  stimulus  word 
on  the  same  surface,  which  suddenly  and  rapidly  moves,  at  the  moment 
of  stimulation,  to  replace  the  insignificant  fixation  mark  by  the  signifi- 
cant stimulus  object  in  the  field  of  clear  vision.  Since  a  word  is  entirely 
illegible  to  the  motionless  eye  while  it  is  in  rapid  motion  across  the 
field  of  vision,  the  exposure  is  simultaneous  in  all  parts  when  the  move- 
ment ceases.  Complete  adaptation  to  distance  and  light  is  preserved 
from  prestimulation  to  stimulation  period,  by  identity  of  background 
and  identity  of  the  plane  of  the  fixation  mark  and  the  exposed  word. 
The  moment  of  exposure  is  the  moment  of  stopping. 

The  great  difficulty  in  constructing  apparatus  of  this  type  has 
always  been  to  effect  the  sudden  stop  without  undue  noise  or  disturb- 
ing vibration  of  the  exposed  word.  To  meet  this  difficulty  is  the  func- 
tion of  our  new  device,  the  pendulum  stop.  Most  of  the  stops  in  com- 
mon use  involve  considerable  noise.  If  the  stop  is  padded  to  prevent 
noise,  it  is  practically  sure  to  produce  a  rebound  or  vibration,  with  con- 
sequent blurring  of  the  exposed  word  during  the  first  moment  of  expo- 
sure. If  the  end-movement  is  damped  by  oil  or  air  cushion,  the  moment 
of  exposure  is  apt  to  become  uncertain.  The  pendulum  stop  obviates 
or  minimizes  all  these  sources  of  disturbance. 

^rdmann  and  Dodge,  Psychologische  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  Lesen,  Halle,  1898. 
*Dodge,  An  Experimental  Study  of  Visual  Fixation.    Monograph  Supp.  of  the  Psychol.  Review, 
No.  35,  1907. 


94  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

Our  exposure  apparatus  is  pictured  in  figure  13.  It  operates  as  fol- 
lows :  Behind  a  suitable  screen,  which  is  pierced  by  an  aperture,  A ,  about 
twice  the  size  of  the  words  to  be  exposed,  is  hung  a  light  horizontal  arm 
OB.  One  end  of  the  arm  OB  is  pivoted,  so  that  the  other  end — the  free 
end — may  move  past  the  aperture  in  the  screen.  The  free  or  moving 
end  carries  the  cards  on  which  are  printed  a  fixation  mark  and  a  stimulus 
word.  The  fixation  mark  is  held  in  front  of  the  aperture  during  the  pre- 
exposure  interval  by  a  magnet  acting  on  the  armature  AR.  An  auto- 
matic circuit-breaker  attached  to  the  shaft  of  the  kymograph  (fig.  14) 
breaks  the  circuit  of  the  electro-magnet  and  releases  the  free  end  of  the 
arm  at  a  given  point  in  each  revolution.  The  arm  stops  at  a  point  to 
expose  the  word  in  the  middle  of  the  aperture.  The  required  accelera- 
tion of  the  arm  is  produced  by  a  quick-acting  spring. 

TO  VOICE  KEY  AND  CIRCUIT  BREAKER 


Fio.  13. — Diagram  of  pendulum-stop  exposure  apparatus. 

The  arm  is  stopped  quickly  and  quietly  at  the  right  spot  for  optimum 
exposure  of  the  word  by  the  previously  mentioned  pendulum  stop,  as 
follows:  A  rigid  lever  connects  the  free  end  of  the  arm  with  a  short  pen- 
dulum, PS,  whose  length  is  exactly  the  distance  that  the  arm  must  move 
to  produce  a  proper  exposure.  When  the  arm  is  at  rest  in  the  pre- 
exposure  position,  this  short  pendulum  is  horizontal.  As  the  arm 
moves  into  the  exposure  position,  the  short  pendulum  becomes  vertical. 
The  pendulum  is  exceedingly  light,  so  that  there  may  be  no  tendency  for 
it  to  go  beyond  the  position  of  equilibrium.  In  our  instrument  the 
length  of  the  pendulum  was  13  mm.  With  this  device  the  movement 
of  the  arm  is  exceedingly  uniform  and  the  otherwise  inevitable,  regu- 
larly increasing  acceleration  is  prevented  by  the  increasing  resistance 
of  the  pendulum  component  of  the  compound  system.  The  stop  is 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS. 


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96  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

produced  when  the  pendulum  reaches  a  vertical  position.  Rebound  is 
impossible,  because  the  pendulum  in  the  vertical  position  is  at  a  dead- 
point  with  respect  to  the  direction  of  the  applied  forces. 

The  accompanying  record  (fig.  15)  is  one  of  a  series  which  was  made 
to  measure  the  latency  of  the  drop  and  the  character  of  the  stop. 
These  records  were  taken  in  the  following  manner :  The  apparatus  was 
set  up  before  the  vertical  slit  of  a  photographic  recording-camera.  A 
word  was  exposed  exactly  as  during  the  experiments,  except  that  a 
light  marker  was  attached  to  the  free  end  of  the  movable  arm.  This 
marker  made  the  shadow  record  A  (fig.  15).  The  horizontal  ordinates 
are  approximately  2  mm.  apart.  The  vertical  ordinates  are  produced 
by  the  vibrator  interrupting  the  recording  beam  of  light  100  times  a 
second.  Line  S  was  made  by  the  shadow  of  a  Deprez  signal  in  circuit 


Fio.  15. — Record  showing  latency  of  the  pendulum-stop 
exposure  apparatus. 

parallel  with  the  circuit  of  the  recorder.  The  break  in  the  circuit  which 
releases  the  magnet  of  the  exposure  apparatus  also  moves  the  signal. 
The  latency  of  the  exposure  apparatus  from  the  moment  when  the 
current  is  broken  to  the  moment  of  exposure  is  seen  to  be  slightly  over 
0.035  second.  A  series  of  11  records  gave  an  average  instrumental 
latency  of  0.0362  second;  mean  variation  0.0006  second.  It  may  be 
objected  that  an  instrumental  latency  of  36 <r  is  a  grave  technical  defect 
in  reaction  experiments.  Against  such  an  objection  we  must  urge: 
(1)  that  an  instrumental  latency  which  is  known,  and  known  to  be 
constant  within  the  limits  of  accuracy  that  are  prescribed  by  the 
experimental  requirements,  can  not  affect  the  value  of  any  measurement, 
since  it  may  be  simply  subducted  from  the  results,  leaving  the  measure- 
ments free  from  instrumental  factors;  (2)  particularly  in  comparative 
records,  an  instrumental  constant  can  not  hide  or  distort  the  experi- 
mental tendency.  Inspection  of  the  shadow  record  (line  A,  fig.  15), 
which  is  produced  by  the  movement  of  the  arm,  shows  that  there  is  a 
very  short  period  of  positive  acceleration,  succeeded  by  a  rapid  move- 
ment at  practically  uniform  speed  for  the  greater  part  of  the  angle  of 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS.  97 

displacement.  The  movement  terminates  abruptly,  absolutely  with- 
out rebound  or  secondary  vibration.  Inspection  of  the  curve  at  the 
moment  of  stopping  shows  that  the  transition  from  the  most  rapid 
movement  to  complete  rest  occurs  in  about  0.002".  The  exposure  is 
not  absolutely  noiseless.  It  seems  to  begin  with  a  light  swish  and  ends 
with  a  light  thud.  Neither  noise  bears  any  resemblance  to  the  usual 
noisy  stop  of  the  spring  or  the  gravity  tachistoscope.  Granting  its 
reasonable  fulfillment  of  the  main  criteria  of  a  satisfactory  exposure  appa- 
ratus, the  chief  advantage  of  this  form  over  the  camera  tachistoscope  of 
Erdmann-Dodge,1  the  transparent-mirror  tachistoscope  of  Dodge,2  and 
other  satisfactory  instruments,  is  its  simplicity  and  compactness.  None 
of  these  forms  could  have  been  used  in  our  complex  of  instruments  with- 
out serious  inconvenience  to  the  operator  or  subject  or  both.  All  of  them 
are  relatively  bulky,  and  in  our  experimental  arrangements  space  was  a 
valuable  asset. 

VOICE-REACTION  KEY. 

Considerably  more  difficult  of  construction  than  an  adequate  ex- 
posure apparatus  is  an  adequate  reaction  key  for  vocalization.  We 
know  of  no  even  relatively  good  reaction  key  for  recording  the  move- 
ments of  the  vocal  organs.  Movements  of  the  chin,  lips,  tongue,  and 
larynx  may  each  be  recorded  separately,  as  is  commonly  done  in 
experimental  phonetics.  But  there  is  no  one  key  for  them  all.  The 
familiar  voice  keys  of  Kraepelin,3  Cattell,4  Erdmann-Dodge,1  Romer,5 
and  others  frankly  surrender  the  effort  to  register  the  muscle-action  of 
articulate  speech  in  favor  of  the  consequent  air-movements.  But  this 
is  a  questionable  expedient,  unless  due  precautions  are  taken  to  render 
it  innocuous.  Voice  keys  depend  on  the  expiration  of  air  involved  in 
utterance,  to  break  an  electric  contact.  Unfortunately,  the  chrono- 
logical place  of  the  expiration  of  air  in  the  total  physiological  process  of 
utterance  is  very  different  for  different  words.  Consequently,  no  air- 
current  key  can  ever  register  in  any  reliable  way  the  real  beginning  of 
the  vocalization  reaction.  In  most  experimental  investigations,  how- 
ever, this  is  not  a  material  source  of  error.  If  one  seeks  the  relative 
efficiency  of  the  vocalization  process  under  varying  conditions,  and 
if  one  uses  a  definite,  unchanging  series  of  stimulus  words,  such  as  our 
group  of  words  was,  the  precise  beginning  of  muscular  reaction  is 
relatively  unimportant.  For  studying  the  effect  of  a  drug,  any  one  of 
the  systematically  correlated  movements  of  the  reaction  would  be 
equally  significant  in  comparing  the  normal  with  the  drug-reaction 
periods.  It  is  on  these  grounds  and  with  the  corresponding  limitations 
that  air-movement  keys  are  defensible  in  speech-reaction  movements. 
As  Wirth6  states  in  a  discussion  of  this  type  of  key,  "They  permit 

^rdmann  and  Dodge,  Psychologische  Untersuchuagen  iiber  das  Lesen,  Halle,  1898. 
8Dodge,  Psychol.  Bull.,  1907,  4,  p.  10.         3Kraepelin,  Phil.  Stud.,  1883,  1,  p.  417. 
•Cattell,  Phil.  Stud.,  1885,  3,  p.  313.         8Romer,  Kraepelin's  Psychol.  Arbeit.,  1,  p.  577. 
•Wirth,  Psychophysik.     Tigerstedt's  Handbuch  der  physiologischen  Methodik,  1912,  3,  p.  490. 


98  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

comparative  records  of  the  same  sounds  only."  The  admissibility  of 
any  particular  type  of  such  sound  keys  is  first  a  matter  of  sensitivity 
and  constancy,  and  secondly  a  matter  of  convenience.  Sensitivity  of 
the  voice  key  affects  reaction  experiments  chiefly  through  its  relation 
to  instrumental  constancy.  The  use  of  extremely  sensitive  recording 
devices,  like  the  phonoscope  of  Weiss,  or  the  microphone,  would  be 
possible,  but  is  probably  inexpedient,  since,  in  view  of  the  fundamental 
defects  of  all  records  of  speech-reactions  by  air-movement,  an  instru- 
ment of  such  sensitivity  could  only  give  the  illusion  of  extreme  accuracy 
in  speech-reaction  measurements.  It  would  not  obviate  the  main 
defects  of  the  measurement.  Simultaneous  records  of  the  throat- 
muscle  movements  and  tested  sound  keys  make  it  clear  that  the  simi- 
larity of  sequence  of  the  physiological  processes  as  close  as  0.001"  can 
not  be  relied  upon  even  for  similar  sounds.  The  demand  for  an  ex- 
tremely sensitive  instrument  under  such  circumstances  would  be  experi- 
mental pedantry.  The  voice  key  which  was  used  in  this  experiment  is 
one  which  was  first  described  by  Dodge.1  Like  the  Erdmann-Dodge 
key,  it  is  a  modification  of  the  Kraepelin-Cattell  sound  key.  The 
present  form  was  evolved  after  a  considerable  number  of  changes,  to 
make  the  instrument  more  compact,  more  manageable,  and  more 
regular  in  its  action. 

One  end  of  a  short  brass  tube,  4  cm.  in  diameter,  is  fitted  with  a  hard- 
rubber  ring  (shown  removed  from  the  brass  tube  in  fig.  16).  Across 
the  ring  a  rubber  membrane  is  stretched.  This  membrane  presses  a 
light  spring,  with  platinum  tip,  against  an  adjustable  contact-point 
within  the  tube.  When  the  spring  and  membrane  are  in  elastic  equil- 
ibrium, the  contact-point  is  adjusted  by  a  micrometer-screw  to  make 
the  lightest  possible  contact.  The  contact  should  be  tested  to  break 
by  a  slight  free-hand  jerk  of  the  key.  It  should  break  positively  in 
movements  of  2  cm.  Under  such  circumstances  a  slight  increase  of 
air-pressure  within  the  tube,  such  as  is  produced  by  speaking  into  its 
open  end,  disturbs  the  elastic  equilibrium  of  spring  and  membrane  and 
breaks  the  electric  circuit. 

The  relative  latency  of  this  instrument  has  been  tested  in  a  number 
of  ways.  Records  illustrating  some  of  these  tests  are  reproduced  in 
figures  17  to  20.  All  these  records  are  read  from  left  to  right.  The 
vertical  ordinates  are  0.01"  apart.  The  horizontal  ordinates  are 
approximately  1  mm.  apart. 

These  and  similar  records  also  give  us  definite  controls  of  the  total 
latency  of  our  voice  key  hi  series  with  the  Harvard  marker,  as  actually 
used  hi  these  experiments,  and  also  the  relative  latency  of  the  Harvard 
signal  as  compared  with  the  Deprez  signal.  The  total  latency  of  our 
voice  key  and  Harvard  marker  is  not  over  20  (0.002")  for  open  tones. 
The  latency  of  the  Deprez  signal  is  not  over  0.5 a.  Most  available 

'Dodge,  An  Experimental  Study  of  Visual  Fixation.  Monograph  Supp.  of  the  Psychol. 
Review,  No.  35,  1907. 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS.  99 

measurements  make  it  smaller.  When  the  spring  and  the  current  are 
carefully  adjusted  the  latency  of  the  break  may  be  even  less  than  0.2  cr. 
The  total  latency  of  the  Harvard  signal  without  friction  is  not  over 
1.5(7.  This  seems  to  be  constant  within  the  errors  of  measurement  for 
currents  such  as  were  used  in  our  experiments.  We  were  particularly 
gratified  at  this  showing  of  the  Harvard  marker.  We  started  to  use  it 
because  of  its  availability.  We  continued  to  use  it  because  of  its  excel- 
lence. From  these  various  records  of  the  latency  of  our  apparatus,  it 
appears  that  the  actual  latency  of  the  word-reactions  will  really  be  about 
37(7  less  than  the  recorded  value.  This  total  error,  however,  will  vary 
from  word  to  word,  but  will  be  relatively  constant  for  similar  initial 
sounds.  The  instrumental  variation  is  much  smaller  than  the  unit 


.,,,,|,,.,|,M.,.,,,|...,|...,|,...,....|..»|...i]niTni|.    .|.N.|m  p^pnpf 
OI234S678P 


FIG.  16. — Voice-reaction  key. 

of  our  measurements.  In  no  event  can  it  be  understood  as  constituting 
a  bias  for  or  against  alcohol  days.  We  have  entered  into  this  careful 
analysis  of  the  instrumental  errors  to  guarantee  as  far  as  instrumental 
accuracy  is  concerned  that  the  drug  effect,  though  relatively  small, 
indicates  a  real  physiological  difference  occasioned  by  the  administra- 
tion of  alcohol. 

EXPERIMENTAL  PROCEDURE. 

Position  of  the  subject. — For  the  word-reactions  the  subject  was  seated 
at  position  I  (fig.  1 ),  as  in  the  knee-j  erk  and  memory  experiments.  The 
back  of  the  seat  was  raised  so  that  the  subject  sat  upright  with  adequate 
support  at  his  back.  The  leg  was  freed  from  the  knee-jerk  apparatus. 
The  left  hand  held  the  voice-reaction  key  lightly  but  firmly  against  the 
upper  lip,  as  per  standard  instructions.  The  left  arm  was  supported 
either  on  the  table  or  on  a  rest  which  was  held  in  the  subject's  lap. 

Stimuli. — A  standard  set  of  24  words  was  used  throughout  the  year. 
In  every  word-reaction  experiment  the  entire  set  of  24  words  was 
reacted  to.  Since  the  reaction  time  for  reading  varies  directly  with 
the  length  of  the  word,  as  shown  by  Cattell,1  and  by  Erdmann  and 
Dodge,2  an  arbitrary  word-length  of  4  letters  was  adopted.  All  the 

Cattell,  Phil.  Stud.,  1885,  3.  p.  313. 

2Erdmann  and  Dodge,  Psychologische  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  Lesen,  Halle,  1898. 


100          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

subjects  were  shown  each  word  separately  before  the  first  day's  experi- 
ments. The  psychopathic  subjects  were  shown  each  word  separately 
at  the  beginning  of  each  day's  experiments. 

Exposure. — The  words  were  exposed  by  the  exposure  apparatus  in 
chance  order  at  intervals  of  10  seconds.  They  were  changed  by  the 
operator  by  hand. 

Operation. — With  the  subject  in  position,  the  time  and  reaction 
markers  properly  adjusted  to  the  drum,  and,  the  Blix-Sandstrom  kymo- 
graph running  at  the  rate  of  100  mm.  per  second,  one  of  the  stimulus 
cards  was  selected  at  random  and  inserted  by  the  operator  in  the 
exposure  apparatus.  From  2  to  2.5  seconds  before  the  exposure  the 
operator  touched  the  kymograph  lever  to  change  the  circular  movement 
of  the  drum  to  a  spiral,  and  withdrew  his  hand  from  the  apparatus 
as  a  signal  for  attention.  As  the  drum  continued  to  revolve,  an  off- 
set on  the  kymograph  shaft  engaged  a  circuit  breaker,  with  which 
the  voice  key,  the  electrical  marker,  and  the  electric  magnets  of  the 
exposure  apparatus  were  in  series.  The  consequent  movement  of  the 
marker  indicates  the  beginning  of  the  movement  of  the  exposure  appa- 
ratus which  eventuates  hi  the  exposure  of  the  word  stimulus.  As  was 
previously  explained,  this  movement  of  the  marker  is  not  coincident 
with  the  exposure ;  the  latter  followed  after  37  0.  While  this  discrepancy 
between  the  registered  and  the  actual  beginning  of  exposure  is  theo- 
retically inexpedient,  it  can  not  affect  comparative  values  as  we  have 
shown.  Absolute  values  for  the  reaction  time  can  be  obtained  by 
deducting  the  latencies  of  the  exposure  apparatus  (37 a). 

The  variation  of  this  latency  as  is  indicated  above  is  considerably  less 
than  half  the  unit  of  measurement.  As  the  drum  moves  on,  the  circuit- 

FIGS.  17  to  20.-Records  of  the  latency  of  the  voice  key. 

Figure  17  is  a  record  of  the  sound  of  "ah,"  recorded  by  three  methods.  Two  records  were 
produced  respectively  by  a  Harvard  Apparatus  Company  marker  and  a  Deprez  signal.  Both 
were  in  series  with  each  other  and  with  the  sound  key.  The  middle  record  was  made  by  a  Cam- 
bridge string  galvanometer  (sensitivity,  3  cm.  per  0.001  volt)  in  series  with  a  telephone  receiver 
which  is  pressed  against  the  throat  over  the  thyroid  cartilage  by  an  elastic  band.  This  record 
shows  an  exceedingly  small  difference  between  the  various  forms  of  recording  devices.  None  of 
the  records  shows  a  relative  delay  of  more  than  0.002".  Of  the  three  the  string-galvanometer 
curve  naturally  shows  the  most  details. 

Figure  18  is  a  record  of  the  word  "cake,"  recorded  similarly  as  the  above  sound  "ah."  The 
various  sounds  of  the  word  appear  plainly  in  the  record  of  the  string  galvanometer  movement. 
The  vowel  is  especially  conspicuous.  Almost  identical  time  relations  exist  between  the  various 
lines  in  this  record  as  in  figure  17,  t.  e.,  the  initial  C  is  recorded  by  our  voice  key  with  as  little  error 
as  the  open  vowels. 

Figure  19  is  a  similar  record  of  the  word  "yolk."  The  character  of  the  vowel  is  notably  changed. 
The  initial  "y"  and  the  final  "  k"  are  obvious  in  the  galvanometer  record.  The  relative  latencies 
do  not  change. 

Another  record  of  the  word  "cake,"  using  the  string  galvanometer  as  before,  is  reproduced  in 
figure  20.  But  instead  of  actuating  the  galvanometer  from  the  throat,  in  this  record  the  telephone 
receiver  was  placed  at  the  side  of  our  voice  key.  The  latency  appears  not  to  be  materially  modi- 
fied by  this  process,  i.  e.,  the  difference  between  the  throat-movement  and  actual  vocalization  in 
the  sound  C  is  negligible,  but  the  record  contains  some  details  which  are  not  found  in  figure  18, 
namely,  at  the  beginning  of  the  record,  the  initial  C  of  "cake"  appears  in  the  string  galvanometer 
record  of  figure  20  as  a  high-pitched  tone.  This  corresponds  with  the  fact  that  the  pitch  of  C 
is  not  determined  at  the  vocal  cords,  but  at  the  front  of  the  mouth. 


FIGS.  17  to  20. 


FIG.  21.—  Photograph  of  a  -subject  in  p 


n  for  th 


association  experiments. 

The  arrangement  of  the  sphygmograph  and  the  psycho-galvanic  electrodes  can  be  seen 
the  photograph,  as  well  as  the  operator's  table  with  its  switches.     (See  p.  109.) 


2SE 


Z\ 


FIG.  22.— Typical  record  of  a  word-reaction  experiment. 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS.  101 

breaker  closes  again,  and  the  marker  returns  to  its  normal  position. 
The  armature  of  the  exposure  apparatus,  however,  is  so  far  from  its 
magnet  that  it  remains  unaffected  by  the  closure  of  the  circuit  and  the 
exposure  is  continuous.  When  the  subject  reacts  by  speaking  the 
word,  the  circuit  of  the  electric  marker  is  broken  a  second  time  by  the 
voice  key.  This  second  movement  of  the  marker  indicates  the  moment 
of  reaction.  Since  both  the  exposure  and  the  reaction  are  recorded  by 
breaking  the  same  electric  circuit,  and  since  both  events  are  recorded 
by  movements  of  the  same  writing-point,  the  alignment  of  the  marker 
and  its  latency  do  not  affect  the  records. 

Standard  instructions  to  the  subject. — (1)  Hold  the  voice  key  to  the 
mouth,  pressing  it  firmly  against  the  upper  lip;  (2)  speak  the  words  as 
soon  as  possible  after  you  see  them;  (3)  if  you  misread  or  mispronounce 
a  word,  speak  it  correctly  as  soon  as  possible. 

RECORDS. 

A  typical  word-reaction  record  is  reproduced  in  figure  22.  The  record 
reads  from  right  to  left.  The  extreme  right-hand  breaks  in  the  horizontal 
lines  indicate  the  moment  of  contact  between  the  offset  of  the  kymo- 
graph shaft  and  the  circuit-breaker  which  was  in  series  with  the  marker 
and  the  exposure  apparatus.  These  breaks  are  in  approximate  vertical 
alignment.  Since  the  kymograph  drum  revolves  completely  in  5",  and 
the  stimulus  follows  at  intervals  of  10",  each  alternate  break  is  insig- 
nificant and  is  not  followed  by  a  reaction,  because  the  exposure  appa- 
ratus was  arbitrarily  prevented  from  falling  by  the  operator.  The 
second  elevation  in  the  horizontal  lines  of  the  significant  records  is 
the  reaction  break.  The  character  of  the  reaction  record  varies  with 
the  word.  The  continuous  record  furnishes  its  own  distribution  curve. 
Measuring  the  distance  between  the  stimulus  and  the  reaction  breaks 
gives  the  reaction-time.  One  millimeter  along  the  base-line  equals  10  cr 
(0.01").  All  records  which  are  not  marked  at  the  time  of  taking,  as 
defective  in  technique  or  in  response,  are  included  in  the  following 
results.  In  this,  as  in  other  measurements,  we  deemed  it  inexpedient 
to  eliminate  any  records  on  the  basis  of  probable  error,  unless  the  evi- 
dence of  inadequacy  was  given,  independent  of  results. 

RESULTS. 

Table  10  gives  the  data  for  wrord-reaction  experiments.  Results  of 
the  normal  days  are  entered  on  the  left,  alcohol  days  on  the  right. 
In  the  first  column  of  each  section  are  entered  the  designation  of  the 
subject,  the  date  of  the  experiment,  and  the  number  of  the  periods. 
In  the  next  column  are  entered  the  averages  of  the  24  reactions  of  each 
period.  Their  mean  variations  are  given  in  the  column  headed  Mean 
variation.  Under  the  heading  Difference  are  given  the  deviations  of 
subsequent  periods  from  the  first,  according  to  the  formula  D  =  1-2, 
1-3,  1-4,  etc.,  and  also  the  mean  variations  of  these  differences. 


102 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  10. — Word-reaction  measurements. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

> 

i 

s 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject,  date,  dose, 
and  number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

! 

I 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 

varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Subject  II. 
Dec.  6,  1913: 
1  
2  
3 

433 
450 
493 
478 
463 

495 
497 
510 
517 
452 
494 

411 
422 
399 
414 
411 

395 
389 
399 
394 

502 
472 
479 
462 
472 
477 

448 
454 
442 
458 
437 
448 

26 
42 
75 
38 
45 

47 
33 
51 
45 
24 
40 

19 
24 
34 
21 
24 

21 
28 
26 
25 

33 
32 
25 
43 
42 
35 

23 
25 
28 
65 
36 
35 

-17 
-  60 
-  45 
-  41 

-     2 
-  15 
-  22 
+  43 

+     1 

-11 
+  12 
-     3 

-16 
-49 
-12 
-26 

+14 

A 

+  2 
+23 
+  7 

-'5 
-15 
-  2 
-  7 

Subject  II. 
Dec.  19,  1913: 
DoaeA: 

1  

*4*6 
441 
452 
468 
443 
446 

'437 
503 
521 
583 
511 

1S94 
402 
409 
385 
414 
401 
401 

W 
417 
420 
397 
411 

1468 
490 
469 
464 
473 

>« 

2:5 

24 
29 
51 
32 

l»8 
25 
27 
64 
36 

l*6 
21 
20 
21 
21 
21 
22 

W 

32 
27 
26 
27 

1S1 
40 
38 
33 
35 

-15 
-  26 
-  42 
-   17 
-  25 

'+"9" 
+  8 
+  3 
-19 
0 

2 

4 

3  
4  
5  
Average  
Mar.  10,  1914: 
Dose  B: 
1 

Average  

Mar.  16,  1914: 

2............. 
3  
4  
5  
Average  

Subject  III. 
Jan.  19,  1914: 

1  
2  
3  
4  
Average  

Mar.  9,    914: 

2............. 
3  
Average  

Subject  IV. 
Jan.  30,  1914: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
6 

2 

-  66 
-  84 
-146 
-  99 

+  3 
+  1 
-36 
-11 

3 

4  

Average  

Subject  III. 
Jan.  26,  1914: 
Dose  A: 
1 

2  

-     8 
-  15 
+     9 
-  20 
-     7 
-     8 

-"5 
-     8 
+  15 
+     1 

-22 
-     1 
+     4 
-     6 

+  5 
+  6 
+  8 
+  5 
+  8 
+  5 

-10 
-  5 
-   4 
-  6 

-  9 
-  7 
-  2 
-  6 

3  
4  
5  
6  
Average  
Feb.  9,  1914: 
DoseB: 

2  
3  
4  
Average  

Subject  IV. 
Feb.  13,  1914: 
DoseB: 

*.............. 
3  
4  
Average  

+     6 
-     4 
+     1 

+  '36 
+  23 
+  40 
+  30 
+  31 

-"•' 
+    « 
-  10 
+  11 
0 

-  7 
-  5 
-  6 

'+'Y 

+  8 
-10 
-  9 
-  2 

-  2 
-  5 
-42 
-13 
-15 

Average  
Mar.  19,  1914: 
1. 

2  
3  
4  

5 

Average  

'The  values  for  the  first  periods  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
was  given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS. 


103 


TABLE  10. — Word-reaction  measurements — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean  variation. 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject,  date,  dose, 
and  number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean  variation. 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Subject  VI. 
Nov.  19,  1913: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
Average  

Feb.  12,  1914: 
1  
2  
Average  

12  hr.  experiment. 
Jan.  1,  1914: 

1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
6  
7  
8  
9  
10 

457 
485 
491 
492 
481 

454 
472 
463 

420 
487 
492 
455 
SOU 
530 
503 
488 
542 
513 
494 

464 
431 
431 
441 

417 
419 
428 
424 
422 

44 
44 
61 
55 
53 

27 
26 
26 

31 
38 
45 
31 
46 
54 
28 
35 
47 
31 
39 

43 
30 
25 
33 

28 
26 
28 
28 
27 

-28 
-  34 
-  35 
-  32 

-  18 
-  18 

-67 
-  72 
-  35 
-  89 
-110 
-  83 
-  68 
-122 
-  93 
-  82 

+  '33' 
+  33 
+  33 

11  "2 

-  11 

-     7 
-    7 

6 

-17 
-11 
-14 

'+'Y 

+  i 

7 
-14 
0 
-15 
-23 
+  3 
-  4 
-16 
0 
-  8 

'+13 
+18 
+15 

'+'2' 
0 
0 

+  1 

Subject  VI. 
Dec.  2,  1913: 
Dose  A: 
1  

1449 
459 
440 
452 
441 
464 
451 

lsoo 

557 
548 
526 
554 

OO6 

542 

1467 
497 
463 
466 
475 
473 
497 
478 
488 
510 
488 
481 

1415 
404 
410 
408 
402 
398 
406 

w 

471 
468 
451 
461 

lso 

31 
32 
39 
45 
54 
38 

149 
70 
58 
35 
79 

62 

130 
33 
38 
29 
48 
27 
50 
33 
33 
61 
40 
38 

*4 
17 
25 
28 
25 
18 
23 

*S9 
37 
62 
35 
41 

-   10 
+     9 
-     3 
+     8 
-   15 
_     2 

-57 
-  48 
-  26 
-  54 
-  56 
-  48 

-30 
+     4 
+     1 
-     8 
-     6 
-  30 
-  11 
-  21 
-  43 
-  21 
-  17 

"_  i 

-  2 
-  9 
-15 
-24 
-10 

-21 
-  9 
+14 
-30 
-40 
-19 

-  3 
-  8 
+  1 
-18 
+  3 
-20 
-  3 
-  3 
-31 
-10 
-  9 

2  
3 

4  
5 

6  
Average  
Jan.  22,  1914: 
DoseB: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
6  
Average  

12  hr.  experiment. 
Jan.  2,  1914: 
DoseC: 

2!.!  
3  
4  
5  
6  
7  

8  
9  
10  

Average  

Subject  VII. 
Nov.  18,  1913: 
1  
2  
3  
Average  

Mar.  20,  1914: 
1 

11  
Average  

Subject  VII. 
Dec.  3,  1913: 
Dose  A: 
1  
2  
3 

+  11 
+     5 
+     7 
+  11 
+  17 

+  10 

-17 
-  14 
+     3 
-    9 

+  7 

-  4 
-  1 

+  6 

+  1 

-12 
-33 
-  6 
-17 

4  

5  
6 

Average  
Mar.  13,  1914: 
DoseB: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
Average  

2  
3  
4 

Average  

1The  values  for  the  first  periods  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
was  given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 


104 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  10.— Word-reaction  measurements — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean  variation. 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3. 
etc.). 

Subject,  date,  dose, 
and  number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean  variation. 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3. 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Subject  IX. 
Nov.  10,  1913: 

2....  
3  
4  
5  
Average  

Nov.  24,  1913: 

1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
Average  

IS  hr.  experiment 
Dec.  22,  1913: 

1  
2 

0) 

473 
531 
525 
512 
508 

438 
473 
479 
471 
463 
465 

465 
462 
477 
476 
476 
485 
465 
457 
472 
461 
470 

(') 
460 
456 
452 
456 

0) 
23 
50 
40 
93 
51 

36 
34 
51 
48 
44 
35 

29 
34 
47 
51 
34 
47 
38 
24 
31 
27 
36 

(») 
28 
32 
30 
30 

-58 
-  52 
-  39 
-  50 

-  35 
-  41 
-  33 
-  25 
-  33 

+  "3" 
-   12 
-  11 
-  11 
-  20 
0 
+     8 
-     7 
+     4 
-    5 

-27 
-17 
-70 
-38 

+  2 
-15 
-12 
-   8 
-  8 

-  5 
-18 
-22 
-  5 
-18 
-11 
+  5 
-  2 
+  2 
-  9 

Subject  IX. 
Nov.  17,  1913: 
Dose  A: 

2                    .    . 

*4*6 
490 
518 
549 
466 
478 
498 

*468 
603 
531 
522 
503 
502 
524 

*460 
439 
471 
452 
488 
487 
484 
464 
453 
489 
514 
473 

*43G 
453 
439 
453 
471 
450 

*461 
463 
486 
478 
495 
475 

m 

39 
37 
78 
34 
41 
45 

*S0 
109 
34 
48 
33 
46 
50 

**9 
28 
32 
29 
30 
29 
49 
26 
28 
32 
47 
33 

*4t 
53 
49 
30 
50 
45 

*31 
26 
32 
42 

•11 
34 

-     4 
-  32 
-  83 
+  20 
+     8 
-  18 

-141 
-  69 
-  60 
-  41 
-  40 
-  70 

+  2l' 
-  11 
+    8 
-  28 
-  27 
-  24 
-     4 
+     7 
-  29 
-  54 
-  14 

-17 
-     3 
-  17 
-  35 
-  18 

+  2 
+  4 
-37 
+  7 
0 
-  5 

-79 
-  4 
-18 
-  3 
-16 
-24 

'  +  'f 
-  3 
0 
-  1 
0 
-20 
+  3 
-1-  1 
-  3 
-18 
-  4 

-12 
-  8 
+  11 
-  9 
-  4 

3   

4  
5  
6  
Average  
Jan.  21,  1914: 
Dose  B: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
6  
Average  

lg  hr.  experiment. 
Dec.  23,  1913: 
DoseC: 

1  
2  
3  
4  
5 

3  
4  
5  
6  
7  
8  
9  
10  
Average  

Subject  X. 
Feb.  11,  1914: 

2............. 
3  

6 

7  
8  
9  
10  
11  
Average  

Subject  X. 
Feb.  18,  1914: 
Dose  A: 

2...  
3  
4  
5  
Average  
Mar.  18.  1914: 
Dose  A: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
Average  

+     4 
+     8 
+    6 

-  4 
-  2 
-  3 

4  
Average  

-   12 
-  35 
-  27 
-  44 
-  29 

+  5 
-  1 
-11 
-10 
-  4 

'The  measurements  for  the  first  period  were  obtained  in  the  preliminary  exposure  of  the  words 
and  the  records  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  table  of  results. 

The  values  for  the  first  periods  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
was  given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 

»Key  was  held  too  low,  so  that  only  a  few  records  were  made. 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS. 

TABLE  10. — Word-reaction  measurements — Continued. 

(Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 

PSYCHOPATHIC  SUBJECTS. 


105 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Subject,  date,  and    Aver- 
number  of  period.       age. 

Mean  variation. 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

Subject,  date,  dose, 
and  number  of  period. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean  variation. 

Difference 
(1-2,  1-3, 
etc.). 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Subject  XI. 
Mar.  24,  1914: 
1  
2  
3  
Average  

Mar  28,  1914: 

1  
2  
3  

706 
682 
704 
697 

686 
729 
696 
704 

573 
485 
459 
506 

489 
508 
513 
503 

573 
473 
641 
562 

563 
581 
571 
572 

56 

69 
78 
68 

42 
53 
59 
51 

54 
59 
50 
54 

37 
41 
28 
35 

54 
59 
76 
63 

33 
44 
46 
41 

Subject  XI. 
Mar.  25,  1914: 
Dose  15  c.c.  : 
1  
2 

1681 
658 
728 
690 
689 

1538 
518 
518 
495 
474 
508 

1613 
607 
589 
587 
570 
593 

188 
45 
61 
74 
67 

1S8 
37 
48 
57 
51 
44 

14S 

52 
52 
44 
60 
51 

+"23" 
-  47 
-     9 
-  16 

+20 

+20 
+43 
+64 
+37 

+  6 
+24 
+26 
+43 

+25 

'+43' 
+27 
+14 
+28 

'-V 
-20 
-29 
-23 
-20 

A 

-  4 
+  4 
-12 
-  4 

+  24 
+     2 
+  13 

-43 
-  10 
-  26 

+  88 
+114 
+101 

-13 
-22 
-17 

-11 
-17 
-14 

"-Y 

+  4 
0 

"-'4' 
+  9 
+  2 

'-'5 
-22 
-13 

3 

4  
Average  

Subject  XII. 
Apr.  1,  1914: 
Dose  A: 
1 

Average  

Subject  XII. 
Mar.  31,  1914: 

1  
2  
3  
Average  

Apr.  4,  1914: 
1  
2 

2  
3       

4 

5  
Average  

Subject  XIV. 
Apr.  22,  1914: 
Dose  A: 

-  19 
-  24 
-  21 

+100 
-68 
+  16 

3  

Average  

Subject  XIV. 
Apr.  21,  1914: 
1  

2  
3  
Average  

Apr.  25,  1914: 
1 

2 

3  

4   

5 

Average  

2  

-   18 
-     8 
-  13 

-11 
-13 
-12 

3  
Average  .' 

'The  values  for  the  first  periods  of  the  alcohol  experiments  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol 
ras  given  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  the  averages. 


106 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  WORD-REACTIONS. 

A  summary  of  the  word-reaction  data  is  given  in  table  11,  in  the 
same  general  arrangement  of  columns  as  obtained  in  table  10.  Since 
the  effects  of  alcohol  are  relatively  slight  at  most,  it  seemed  desirable 
to  present  the  results  in  true  averages  as  well  as  by  differences.  All  the 
results  are  given  without  correction  for  the  instrumental  latency.  In 
accordance  with  our  investigation  of  that  factor  (p.  99),  absolute  values 
will  be  found  by  subducting  37 a  from  recorded  values. 

TABLE  11. — Summary  of  word-reactions. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Alcohol. 

Normal  (I  and  II). 

Dose  A.1 

Dose  8. 

Subject. 

3J 

Average 
difference.2 

i 

Average 
difference.1 

U 

Average 
difference.2 

Aver- 
age. 

I* 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

i1 

Aver 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

I1 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Normal  subjects: 

II  

478 

42 

-20      -  9 

446 

32 

-25 

0 

511 

36 

-99 

-11 

Ill  

402 

24 

0 

-  6 

401 

22 

-  8 

+  5 

411 

27 

+  1 

-  6 

IV  

462 

35 

+15 

-  8 

(') 

(') 

(') 

(') 

473 

35 

-   6 

-  6 

VI  

472 

39 

-25 

-  6 

451 

38 

—  2 

-10 

542 

62  I   -48 

-19 

VII  

431 

30 

+13 

+  8 

406 

23 

+10 

+  1 

461 

41-9 

-17 

IX  

486 

43 

-41 

-23 

498 

45 

-18 

-   5 

524 

50  I   -70 

-24 

X  

456 

30 

+  6 

-  3 

462 

39 

-23 

-   4 

Average..  . 

456 

35 

-  7 

-  7 

444 

33 

-11 

-  2 

487 

42 

-38 

-14 

12  hr.  experi- 

ments: 

VI  

404 

39 

-82 

-  8 

'481 

'38 

!-17 

»-  9 

IX  

470 

36 

-  5 

-  9 

'473 

!33 

i_14 

i_  4 

Average  .  .  . 

482 

37 

-43 

-  8 

»477 

>35 

'-15 

'-  6 

Psychopathic 

subjects: 

XI  

700 

59 

-  6 

-15 

689 

67 

-16 

+28 

XII  

504 

44 

+40 

+  1 

508 

44 

+37 

-20 

XIV  

667 

52 

+  1 

-12 

593 

51 

+25 

-  4 

Average  .  .  . 

590 

52 

+12 

-  9 

597 

54 

+15 

+  1 

'Dose  C  (12  c.c.)  was  used  in  the  12-hour  experiments. 

•Differences  equal  period  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 

•Experiment  with  dose  A  was  accidentally  omitted  from  this  series. 

As  appears  from  table  11,  the  average  recorded  normal  latency  of  the 
word-reaction  for  the  normal  group, is  455<r.  It  is  notably  higher,  viz, 
590 <r,  for  the  psychopathic  group.  Subject  XI  was  especially  handi- 
capped by  a  slight  impediment  in  his  speech.  His  latency  is  conse- 
quently conspicuously  long. 

The  range  of  normal  averages  for  the  main  group  is  from  402  a  to 
486<r,  a  maximum  difference  of  21  per  cent.  Within  the  main  group, 
at  least,  the  community  of  linguistic  association  corresponds  with  our 
expectation. 


COMPLEX   NEURAL   ARCS. 


107 


The  average  of  mean  normal  variation  for  the  main  group  is  7.7  per 
cent  of  the  average  latency.  It  is  notable  that  nowhere,  not  even  in 
the  psychopathic  cases,  does  the  mean  variation  reach  10  per  cent  of 
the  average.  This  is  the  more  conspicuous  when  one  realizes  that 
only  one  of  the  subjects  (Subject  VI)  had  ever  served  as  a  subject  in 
similar  experiments,  and,  moreover,  that  the  mean  variation  includes  the 
variations  which  must  be  expected  from  the  differences  in  familiarity 
among  the  24  stimulus  words,  as  well  as  the  psychophysical  variability 
of  the  subjects. 

TABLE  12. — Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  word-reactions  as  expressed  in  averages 

and  differences. 

[Average  values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject. 

Effect  as  shown  by  averages.1 

Effect  as  shown  by  average 
differences.* 

Effect  as 
shown  by 
percentile 
differences.* 

Dose  A. 

Dose  B. 

Total 
aver- 
age 
effect 
with 
dosesA 
and  B. 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

-|£ 

*rP= 

age<   i  tion. 

Aver- 
age 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

rjS 

Dose 
A. 

Dose 
B. 

Normal    sub- 
jects: 
II  
Ill  
IV  
VI  
VII  

IX.. 
•£ 

Average  . 
12  hr.  experi- 
ments : 
VI  
IX  
Average  . 
Psychopathic 
subjects: 
XI  
XII  
XIV  
Average  . 

i 

p.  ct. 
-  1 
-  2 

'+'5' 

+  5 
-  6 
0 

4+15 
<-  2 
4+  6 

p.  ct. 
-17 
0 
-  4 
-  5 
-  5 
-  6 

-6.2 

-32 
-    1 

•-2i 
-25 
+12 
+  6 
-10 

4  -13 

4  +  3 

4_    5 

-11 

+  4 

tl 

-10 
-  2 
...... 

-  7 
+  2 
+  9 
-   1 

4-   1 
4-  3 

4_    2 

+  8 
0 

+  2 

+33 
+  9 
+11 
+70 
+30 
+38 

'+32' 

;i 

+23 
+11 

+  7 

'+"e' 

0 
+  4 
+  11 
+24 
+  2 
+25 
+  6 
+10 

-  5 

U 

+  9 
+  11 

-79 
+  1 
-21 

:S 

-29 

-2 
0 
+  2 
-13 
-25 
-   1 

+23 
-  3 
+23 
-29 
0 

4  +65 
4-  9 

4  +28 

-10 
-  3 

+24 
+  4 

—  4 

-  7 
+18 

;i 

4  _     j 

4+  5 
4+  2 

+43 
-21 
+  8 
+10 

-29 

-  6 



-  1 
-  1 

+  4 

+  1 

... 

Effect  on  averages  equals  alcohol  average  minus  normal  average. 

2Effect  on  the  average  difference  equals  (av.  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc.,  alcohol)  minus  (av.  1-2,  1-3, 
1-4,  etc.,  normal). 

3Effect  on  the  percentile  difference  equals  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  average  difference  divided 
by  the  average  of  the  corresponding  normals  of  the  day. 

4Dose  C  given  in  12-hour  experiments. 

The  effect  of  repetition  decreases  the  reaction  latency  between  the 
first  and  last  normal  day  3.7  per  cent  for  the  normal  group.  The  effect 
of  repetition  for  the  psychopathic  group  is  less  than  1  per  cent. 

With  respect  to  instrumental  accuracy,  community  of  pre-experi- 
mental  experiences,  low  variability,  and  small  effect  of  repetition  the 
word-reaction  measurements  qualify  as  among  the  most  satisfactory 
of  the  group. 


108  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  WORD-REACTION. 

A  summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  word-reactions  is  given  in 
table  12.  In  the  three  sections  of  the  table  the  effect  of  alcohol  is  shown 
respectively,  by  averages,  by  average  differences,  and  by  percentile 
differences. 

No  matter  how  the  effect  of  alcohol  is  reckoned  as  a  result  of  these 
measurements,  it  is  minute  to  the  point  of  disappearance  after  dose  A, 
and  small  but  consistent  after  dose  B.  By  every  method  of  computa- 
tion, dose  B  increases  the  latent  time  of  the  reaction.  By  percentile 
differences  the  increase  averages  6.2  per  cent,  i.  e.,  80  per  cent  of  the 
normal  mean  variation.  The  apparent  effect  of  dose  A,  however, 
depends  on  the  table  from  which  it  was  computed.  If  on  the  basis  of 
the  small  mean  variation  and  the  small  effect  of  repetition,  one  ven- 
tured to  compute  the  effect  from  the  averages,  it  would  appear  that 
dose  A  decreased  the  latency  in  4  out  of  6  normal  subjects,  by  about 
3  per  cent.  If  we  reckon  the  effect,  as  in  previous  cases,  by  the  differ- 
ences, we  find  that  dose  A  appears  to  lengthen  the  latency  in  4  out  of  6 
cases,  averaging  1  per  cent.  Taking  the  average  of  percentile  changes, 
dose  A  appears  to  effect  practically  no  change  at  all,  either  in  the  main 
group  or  in  the  psychopathic  subjects.  For  reasons  previously  dis- 
cussed, we  believe  the  differences  represent  the  facts  more  closely  than 
the  simple  averages.  While  these  show  an  increase  in  reaction  latency 
in  4  out  of  6  cases  as  a  result  of  dose  A,  the  percentile  average  change 
is  zero. 

The  average  change  of  latency  due  to  the  ingestion  of  alcohol  (both 
doses)  is  consequently  about  3  per  cent.  In  view  of  all  our  precautions 
and  the  reliability  of  our  technique,  this  must  be  regarded  as  evidence 
for  a  real  though  slight  tendency  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  to  increase 
the  latency  of  the  word-reaction. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  FREE  ASSOCIATIONS.1 

The  highest  complication  of  the  reflex  arc  with  which  we  felt  justified 
in  dealing  in  this  research  is  that  which  is  commonly  known  as  the  free- 
association  experiment,  and  this  would  not  have  been  attempted  had 
it  not  been  for  the  generous  collaboration  of  an  expert  in  the  field. 

METHODS  AND  APPARATUS. 

As  it  is  commonly  practiced,  the  association  experiment  is  a  kind  of 
reaction.  The  stimulus  to  reaction  is  a  word  spoken  by  the  operator. 
The  reaction  is  a  response  word  spoken  by  the  subject.  The  kind  of 
response  which  is  demanded  of  the  subject  may  be  systematically 
varied,  giving  rise  to  several  different  types  of  association  experiments. 
In  the  free-association  experiment  the  subject  is  required  merely  to 
speak  as  quickly  as  possible  the  first  word  that  occurs  to  him  after  the 
stimulus  word  is  given. 

The  relationship  between  the  stimulus  word  and  the  response, 
together  with  the  latency  of  the  reaction  word,  are  the  usual  significant 
facts  in  the  experiment.  In  addition,  the  so-called  psycho-galvanic 
reflex  and  the  accompanying  pulse-changes  have  been  regarded  as 
significant.  We  undertook  to  measure  all  these  factors. 

The  free-association  experiment  occupied  the  balcony  of  the  psy- 
chological laboratory  (see  p.  30).  The  subject  reclined  in  a  steamer- 
chair  and  faced  a  bare  corner  of  the  room.  Behind  the  subject  and  to 
his  right  the  operator  (Wells)  sat  at  a  small,  properly  illuminated 
writing-table,  on  which  were  the  switches  for  the  various  electric 
currents,  a  2-volt  signal  light,  and  the  operator's  reaction  key.2 

The  device  for  securing  pulse-records3  was  attached  to  the  left  wrist 
of  the  subject.  A  light  but  sensitive  pneumograph  capsule  was  but- 
toned under  his  vest.  Electrodes  for  securing  the  psycho-galvanic 
reflex  rested  on  a  suitable  stand  at  the  subject's  right  hand,  so  that  the 
index  and  second  digit  of  his  right  hand  could  reach  them  with,  the 
arm  in  a  natural  and  comfortable  position. 

APPARATUS  FOR  THE  PSYCHO-GALVANIC  REFLEX. 

The  apparatus  which  was  used  for  measuring  the  psycho-galvanic 
reflex  was:  (1)  non-polarizable  electrodes  for  the  fingers:  (2)  a  Wheat- 
stone  bridge  which  was  connected  as  though  to  measure  the  skin- 
resistance  against  a  variable,  known  resistance;  and  (3)  a  string  galva- 
nometer connected  across  the  bridge.  The  electrodes  were  the  same 

^n  collaboration  with  Dr.  F.  L.  Wells,  of  McLean  Hospital,  Waverly,  Mass. 

2See  figure  21.  facing  page  101. 

3  A  complete  description  of  this  device  is  given  in  Chapter  VIII,  p.  189. 

109 


110  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

as  were  regularly  used  by  us  for  measuring  the  sensory  threshold  to 
Faradic  current.  Two  evaporating  dishes  about  6  cm.  in  diameter  were 
one-quarter  filled  with  a  saturated  solution  of  zinc  sulphate.  Each 
dish  held  an  amalgamated  zinc  rod,  through  which  the  electrode  was 
connected  with  the  wiring  from  the  bridge,  and  a  porous  porcelain  cup, 
which  was  half  filled  with  physiological  salt  solution,  in  which  the 
respective  fingers  were  immersed.  The  Wheatstone  bridge  was  the 
same  as  that  used  in  determining  the  skin-resistance  for  the  Martin 
measurements  of  Faradic  threshold;  but  in  the  present  case  it  was 
operated  by  a  constant  current  of  3  volts,  instead  of  the  alternating 
current  which  must  be  used  for  skin-resistance  measurements.  In 
place  of  the  usual  telephone  receiver  we  connected  the  string  gal- 
vanometer. (See  fig.  1.) 

The  recording  beam  of  light  from  the  string  galvanometer  was 
reflected  at  the  eyepiece  of  the  projection  microscope  at  an  angle  of  90° 
to  a  millimeter  scale  which  was  attached  to  the  side  of  the  eye-reaction 
camera.  The  string  was  loosened  to  a  sensitivity  of  about  20  cm.  per 
0.001  volt.  Its  position  on  the  scale  was  kept  approximately  constant 
by  balancing  the  Wheatstone  bridge  between  the  experiments.  The 
experimental  movement  of  the  string  shadow  resulted  from  a  lack  of 
balance  in  the  arms  of  the  bridge,  and  showed  at  once  the  direction  of 
change  and  its  amount.  100  mm.  of  scale  was  measured  in  terms  of 
millimeters  of  balanced  bridge  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  each 
experimental  period,  so  that  the  experimental  changes  could  be  reduced 
to  terms  of  resistance  changes. 

Two  circumstances  greatly  reduced  the  value  of  the  resulting  readings: 
(1)  Long  immersion  of  the  fingers  in  the  fluid  electrodes  was  found 
almost  to  annihilate  the  phenomenon.  It  was  consequently  measured 
only  in  the  D-D'  series  (Kent-Rosanoff  series).  (2)  In  the  predeter- 
mined sequences  of  reactions,  6  per  minute,  it  appears  that  there  is  not 
sufficient  time  between  experiments  for  a  return  of  the  psycho-galvanic 
equilibrium.  At  any  rate,  in  our  experiments  the  resistance  changes 
seemed  cumulative.  For  some  cause  the  apparent  resistance  at  the 
end  of  a  series  was  regularly  different  from  that  at  the  beginning. 
These  circumstances  make  it  doubtful  if  our  measurements  of  the 
psycho-galvanic  reflex  are  of  any  real  significance. 

APPARATUS  FOR  RECORDING  THE  ASSOCIATION  TIME. 
The  arrangements  for  recording  the  latent  time  of  the  responses  and 
the  synchronous  pulse-waves  were  somewhat  complex.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  both  subject  and  operator  occupied  the  balcony  of 
the  research  room.  There  was  no  apparatus  on  the  balcony  except  the 
tambour  and  the  mercury-cup  devices  to  transform  the  mechanical 
pulse  and  respiration  waves  into  electric  impulses.  All  graphic  records 
were  taken  on  the  Blix-Sandstrom  kymograph  on  the  floor  below.  It 


FREE    ASSOCIATION.  Ill 

was  consequently  necessary  to  correlate  the  processes  by  some  scheme 
that  would  identify  each  phase  of  the  records,  as  well  as  to  unite  the 
various  records  into  one  whole. 

The  signal  for  giving  each  stimulus  word  was  transmitted  to  the 
operator  (Wells)  at  each  revolution  of  the  kymograph  drum  by  an 
automatic  break  in  the  2-volt  incandescent  signal-lamp  circuit.  Since 
the  kymograph  was  regulated  to  make  1  revolution  in  10  seconds,  these 
signals  placed  the  stimuli  10  seconds  apart.  At  the  moment  of  actually 
giving  the  stimulus  word,  the  operator  simultaneously  pressed  a  tele- 
graph key  that  registered  the  event  on  the  kymograph  record  by  a 
characteristic  break  in  the  curve.  On  the  continuous  spiral  record  cor- 
responding to  50  experiments,  these  breaks  come  at  approximately  the 
same  moment  of  each  revolution,  and  make  a  more  or  less  approximately 
straight  line.  When  the  subject  responded  to  the  stimulus,  the  operator 
signaled  the  moment  of  response  by  releasing  his  pressure  on  the  tele- 
graph key,  and  the  recording  curve  correspondingly  returned  to  its 
pre-stimulation  base-line.  The  latent  time  of  each  response  thus 
appeared  on  the  records  as  a  plateau,  whose  rise  corresponded  with 
the  moment  of  stimulation  and  whose  fall  corresponded  with  the  opera- 
tor's reaction  to  the  response  of  the  subject. 

A  constant  error  in  the  association  time  as  thus  recorded  is  involved 
in  the  fact  that  the  stimulation  signal  is  given  synchronously  with  the 
stimulus  word,  while  the  recorded  moment  of  reaction  must  include  the 
personal  equation  of  the  operator,  who  can  give  the  signal  only  after  he 
hears  the  subject  speak.  While  it  makes  all  our  values  somewhat  too 
large,  in  the  comparison  of  one  series  of  performances  with  another, 
this  constant  error  is  negligible. 

Aside  from  this  constant  and  negligible  error,  the  probability  that 
any  measured  association  time  corresponds  with  the  real  association  time 
is  dependent  on  the  variability  of  the  personal  equation  of  the  operator. 
Our  records  are  protected  in  this  respect  by  the  fact  that  Wells  is  an 
unusually  practiced  reactor,  with  a  small  mean  variation.  Moreover, 
we  did  not  aim  at  an  accuracy  greater  than  is  implied  in  the  rather 
large  unit  of  measurement  of  0.01". 

We  shall  probably  be  criticized  for  not  using  some  more  mechanical 
form  of  stimulus  and  reaction  key.  The  answer  to  all  such  criticism 
must  be  to  emphasize  the  main  purpose  of  the  free-association  experi- 
ments. Their  main  value  lies  in  the  character  of  the  response.  Any- 
thing that  tends  to  disturb  that  phase  of  the  experiment  is  unpardon- 
able. Other  phases  are  only  of  relative  importance.  For  example,  it 
would  have  been  easy  to  give  the  stimulus  word  optically,  with  all  the 
accuracy  that  characterizes  the  word-reaction  experiment.  But  the 
optical  word  is  a  stimulus  for  a  very  different  mental  operation  from  the 
auditory.  The  inevitable  associate  for  the  optical  word  is  its  auditory- 
motor  associate.  We  depended  on  that  regular  connection  in  the  word- 


112          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

reaction  experiments.  But  that  association  would  have  been  disas- 
trous to  the  present  experiments.  It  would  have  been  equally  possible 
to  give  words  by  a  dictaphone,  as  was  suggested  by  some  friendly  critics 
before  the  experiments  began.  But  there  is  no  natural  impulse  to  talk 
back  to  a  dictaphone,  none  at  least  to  respond  to  its  pronouncements 
by  an  associated  word.  Still  more  serious  than  the  psychological  "  set," 
is  the  confusion  of  the  intercurrent  noises  and  the  instrumental  elisions 
of  sound  which  may  be  variously  important  in  stimulus  words  of 
different  lengths.  Moreover,  it  takes  practice  to  become  a  good  dicta- 
phone operator,  and  even  the  best  must  constantly  depend  on  recon- 
structing the  sound  from  the  sense.  This  is  naturally  impossible  with 
isolated  words.  Actual  experiments  with  a  typical  series  of  words 
recorded  on  the  dictaphone  showed  enormous  individual  variations  in 
the  number  of  errors.  One  subject  failed  in  about  80  per  cent  of  the 
trials.  Not  even  a  practiced  operator  understood  them  all. 

It  would  have  been  entirely  possible  to  record  the  moment  of  reaction 
by  our  speech-reaction  key.  We  tried  it.  But,  owing  to  the  muffling 
of  the  sounds  by  the  diaphragm,  it  proved  to  be  utterly  impossible  for 
the  operator  to  be  sure  what  was  the  response  of  the  subject.  At 
present,  at  least,  there  appears  to  be  no  means  for  mechanizing  the 
timing  device  without  jeopardizing  the  main  technical  requirement  of 
the  experiment — the  clear  mutual  understanding  of  operator  and 
subject. 

For  convenience  of  identification  on  the  record,  the  stimulus  words 
were  given  in  groups  of  5.  Between  each  group  of  5  words  a  blank  line 
was  run  on  the  record  without  reaction.  After  the  first  25  words  of  each 
series  an  interval  of  a  few  seconds  was  allowed  for  resetting  the  markers. 
This  divided  the  graphic  record  further  into  halves.  Each  hah"  con- 
sisted of  5  groups  of  5  records  each.  Thus  the  subsequent  correlation 
of  each  record  with  its  appropriate  association  was  a  simple  and  accu- 
rate process. 

The  pulse-records  and  pneumographic  records  were  superposed  on 
the  reaction-records  by  the  following  arrangements:  After  the  mechan- 
ical pulse-wave  had  been  transformed  into  an  electric  impulse  by  the 
mercury-cup  device,  which  is  described  on  page  191,  the  electric  cir- 
cuit was  carried  directly  to  the  same  duplex  marker  that  recorded  the 
latency  of  the  response.  Coincident  with  the  association  latency 
records,  then,  and  on  the  same  record  line,  appears  a  continuous  record 
of  the  length  of  the  concurrent  pulse-waves.  Thus  the  pulse-lengths  at 
any  part  of  the  reaction  process  may  be  read  directly  from  the  records. 

The  pneumograph  records  were  made  by  using  a  second  mercury-cup 
device  to  transform  the  mechanical  action  of  respiration  to  electrical 
waves  which  caused  a  marker  to  touch  the  record  during  each  inspira- 
tion only.  This  recorded  only  the  respiration  rhythm,  not  its  depth, 
but  it  sufficed  to  show  that  the  pulse-rhythm  of  the  experiments  is 


FREE   ASSOCIATION.  113 

not  a  mere  respiration  rhythm,  but  is  superposed  on  the  latter  in  a 
definite  manner. 

A  time-line  was  also  introduced  into  the  records  to  control  the  accu- 
racy of  the  kymograph.  The  pendulum  of  an  accurately  running  clock 
was  made  to  break  the  electric  circuit  of  a  time-marker,  which  was 
thus  permitted  to  vibrate  against  the  drum  for  a  moment  every  2 
seconds.  This  intermittent  time-record  is  so  delicate  that  it  can  not 
interfere  in  the  least  with  the  other  lines,  while  it  serves  as  an  absolute 
guarantee  of  the  speed  of  the  kymograph. 

STIMULUS  WORDS. 

The  series  of  stimulus  words  was  that  given  in  the  Appendix  of  the 
monograph  by  Woodworth  and  Wells.1  The  Kent-Rosanoff2  words 
were  eliminated  from  it,  and  made  into  two  series,  D  and  D',  as  here- 
after described.  The  entire  series  was  divided  into  20  lists  of  50  words 
each.  One  list  formed  the  material  for  a  single  experimental  period. 
Six  lists  were  given  on  each  experimental  day,  regularly  alternating 
with  the  Faradic  threshold  experiments.  On  a  few  occasions  diffi- 
culties of  technique  caused  a  delay  which  necessitated  the  omission  of 
the  threshold  experiment,  but  the  interval  between  the  association 
experiments  approximated  12  minutes  in  each  case.  The  instructions 
to  the  subject  were  verbal,  in  a  form  that  frequent  repetition  has  re- 
duced to  practical  uniformity.  On  the  first  day,  conventional  examples 
of  stimulus  and  response  were  given  to  the  subject,  who  also  reacted 
correctly  to  preliminary  stimulus  words  before  the  experiments  were 
begun.  In  this  manner  all  difficulties  in  understanding  the  nature  of 
the  test  were  avoided  during  the  experiment.  If  a  stimulus  word  was 
misunderstood,  it  was  taken  in  the  sense  in  which  it  was  understood; 
if  the  response  were  doubtfully  understood,  the  subject  was  requested 
to  spell  it,  or  was  asked  about  ambiguities. 

There  are  three  more  or  less  standard  ways  of  dealing  with  the  data 
of  the  association  experiment.  These  are:  (1)  according  to  the  reaction 
time  of  the  response;  (2)  according  to  certain  quasilogical  relations  of 
the  response  and  the  stimulus  word;  (3)  by  the  statistical  frequency 
of  the  responses  within  the  range  of  the  material  where  this  has  been 
determined.  In  addition,  the  present  experiments  record  the  pulse- 
reactions  of  the  subjects  and,  in  certain  cases,  also  "psycho-galvanic" 
reactions.  These  phases  of  the  experiment  are  first  described  in  order, 
after  which  some  questions  of  correlation  are  dealt  with. 

1Woodworth  and  Wells.     Psychological  Monographs,  1911,  13,  No.  57. 
2Kent  and  Rosanoff,  Am.  Journ.  Insanity,  1910,  67,  pp.  37  and  317. 


114 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


ASSOCIATION-REACTION  TIME. 

This  is  the  most  highly  educated  group  of  subjects  that  Wells  has 
used  in  the  association  experiment.  As  a  group,  the  reaction  times  are 
a  little  longer  than  those  of  less-educated  subjects  Wells  has  seen,  the 
slower  formulation  of  the  response  being  very  probably  due  to  the 
more  complex  mental  processes  the  stimulus  word  is  likely  to  arouse  in 
educated  subjects.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  differences  between 
the  averages  are  small,  the  order  of  quickness  in  which  these  averages 
place  the  subjects  is  fairly  constantly  maintained,  Subjects  X  and  III 
being  the  fastest.  Then  follow  in  order  Subjects  VI,  VII,  II,  and  IX. 
The  place  of  Subject  IX  is  doubtless  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  not 
English  but  German  is  his  native  language. 

TABLE  13. — Associatiorweaction  times. 
[Values  given  in  hundredths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and  kind  of 
experiment. 

Series 
A. 

Series 
B. 

Series 
C. 

Series 
D. 

Series 
E. 

Series 
F. 

Aver- 
age. 

Normal  I: 
II  
Ill  

240 
196 

241 
205 

234 
194 

205 
163 

254 
194 

248 
202 

237 
192 

IV  
VI  
VII  
IX  
X            .    .    . 

233 
234 
228 
316 
157 

216 
207 
225 
313 
163 

215 
217 
218 
280 
162 

201 
191 
209 
248 
158 

235 
194 
187 
267 
163 

230 
224 
223 
281 
179 

222 
211 
215 
281 
164 

Alcohol  (dose  A): 
II  
Ill 

»*/a 

l&08 

261 

189 

268 
187 

203 
164 

233 

182 

274 
193 

248 
183 

IV 

1868 

239 

241 

191 

240 

240 

230 

VI  
VII 

1819 
1802 

244 
223 

212 
235 

194 
204 

208 
226 

205 
243 

213 
226 

IX 

1X68 

270 

275 

256 

278 

285 

273 

x 

1177 

173 

172 

161 

168 

169 

168 

Alcohol  (dose  B)  : 
II  
Ill  
IV  

1S87 
1186 

leos 

258 
189 
223 

257 
179 
212 

196 

169 

188 

239 
193 
207 

267 

188 
228 

243 
184 
212 

VI  
VII  
IX  

1190 
1196 
1846 

193 
207 
231 

186 
196 
279 

170 
189 
256 

184 
196 
292 

186 
198 
309 

184 
197 
271 

Normal  II: 
II  
Ill 

236 
189 

222 
177 

248 
201 

212 

180 

273 
191 

268 
185 

243 

187 

IV 

207 

155 

191 

182 

206 

209 

192 

VI 

187 

172 

185 

177 

198 

198 

186 

VII 

180 

177 

196 

185 

193 

218 

191 

IX.. 

266 

242 

251 

237 

272 

267 

256 

1  V:ilui-.-  for  Series  A  obtained  before  alcohol  was  given,  and  therefore  not 
included  in  averagea. 


The  complete  table  of  association-reaction  tunes  is  given  in  table  13. 
In  the  column  at  the  extreme  left  is  given  the  kind  of  experiment  and 
the  designation  of  the  several  subjects.  The  columns  headed  Series  A, 
Series  B,  etc.,  contain  the  average  results  for  the  6  experimental  periods 


FREE    ASSOCIATION. 


115 


into  which  each  session  was  divided.     The  last  column  shows  the 
average  of  the  whole  experimental  session  for  each  subject. 

That  the  present  doses  of  alcohol  have  produced  no  marked  effect  on 
the  association  reaction  times  is  at  once  apparent;  it  is  rather  a  ques- 
tion of  whether  a  consistent  effect  is  discernible. 

I.  (Normal)  2.  (Dose  A)  3.  (Dose  B)  4. (Normal)  ^ 

ABCDEEABCDEFAB'CDEFABCOEF 


III 


IV 


VI 


VII 


IX 


P80 

P70 

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P60 

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Fia.  23. — Curves  of  the  association-reaction  time. 


116 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


As  we  already  know,  there  is  considerable  practice  effect  in  associ- 
ation-reaction time,  and  the  influence  of  alcohol  might  be  obscured  by 
it.  The  most  we  can  do  is  to  observe  the  relation  of  the  first  and  fourth 
normal  days  to  the  days  on  which  alcohol  was  given.  The  accom- 
panying curves  (fig.  23)  show  this  graphically  for  the  different  subjects. 

In  figure  23,  the  average  reaction  times  for  the  normal  days  are  con- 
nected, also  those  for  the  alcohol  days.  If  the  alcohol  produces  no 
effect,  the  line  connecting  the  experiments  should  approximately  coin- 
cide with  that  of  the  non-alcohol  days.  It  very  nearly  does  so  in  the 
case  of  Subject  IX,  though  in  the  third  experiment  it  is  a  little  higher. 
Subject  VI  is  slower  with  the  smaller  dose  and  nearly  equal  to  normal 
with  the  larger  one.  Subject  III  is  perhaps  a  little  faster  with  alcohol; 
Subject  II  somewhat  slower;  and  Subject  IV  distinctly  so.  In  con- 
templating the  size  of  the  variations  in  the  individual  series,  it  is  plain 
that  these  differences  are  not  too  large  to  be  due  to  chance,  neither  are 
they  systematically  distributed. 

TABLE  14. — Average  differences  in  measurements  of  ivord-reaction  time.1 
[Values  given  in  hundredths  of  a  second.] 


Normal. 

4 

Ucohol. 

Subject. 

I 

II 

Average. 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

Average. 

II... 

+  4 

-  9 

-  2 

-30 

+44 

+  7 

Ill  

iv  

VI  
VII  
IX  
X  

+  5 
+14 
+27 
+16 
+38 
-  8 

+  2 
-18 
+  1 
-14 
+12 

+  3 
-  2 
+14 
+  1 
+25 
(-  8) 

+20 
+  2 
+  6 
-22 
-  5 
+  8 

+  1 

;: 

+  i 

..:28.. 

+10 
-  3 
+  6 
-10 
-16 
(+  8) 

Average 

+  5 

+  03 

Percentage  effect 

1  6 

'Differences  obtained  by  subtracting  the  values  for  each  of  the  series  B  to  F 
from  the  values  for  the  series  A.     (See  table  13.) 

Each  experiment  consists  of  6  series  of  50  associations.  We  may 
compare  the  differences  between  the  normal  of  the  day  and  subsequent 
series  in  the  rate  of  reaction  shown  on  the  alcohol  and  normal  days. 
On  the  normal  days  Subjects  II,  IV,  and  X  average  an  increase  in  the 
reaction-time,  as  is  shown  in  table  13.  On  the  alcohol  days  marked 
progressive  increases  are  shown  in  the  averages  of  Subjects  VII  and  IX; 
the  progressive  decrease  is  less  in  Subject  VI.  Subject  IV  shows  no 
significant  change.  Subjects  II  and  III  show  a  greater  lengthening 
of  reaction- time  in  the  alcohol  series.  Subject  X  changes  from  a  pro- 
gressive increase  in  rate  without  alcohol  to  a  progressive  decrease  with 
it.  Not  only  is  this  quite  irregular,  but  the  alcohol  and  non-alcohol 


FREE   ASSOCIATION.  117 


days  do  not  agree  among  themselves;  thus  Subject  II  increases  his 
rate  an  average  of  0.30"  in  the  second  experiment  and  decreases  it  an 
average  of  0.44"  in  the  third  experiment,  both  alcohol  days. 

The  experiments  do  not  justify  attributing  to  alcohol  such  widely 
varying  changes  as  the  above,  which  are  shown  in  full  by  table  14. 

The  association  time  is  not  a  simple  process,  and  its  results  might 
conceivably  be  produced  by  consistent,  though  opposite  effects  upon 
its  components — a  facilitation  of  the  motor  and  retardation  of  the 
psychic  elements,  for  example.  If  this  were  the  case,  variations  could 
still  be  expected  in  the  form  and  content  of  the  responses. 

ASSOCIATIVE  CATEGORIES. 

In  1911  Wells1  formulated  a  system  of  quasilogical  classification  of 
associations,  which  aimed  to  preserve  the  valuable  distinctions  of  such 
categories  in  their  simplest  possible  form.  It  was  derived  most  imme- 
diately from  the  system  of  Jung  and  Riklin.2  The  categories  were 
reduced  to  5  in  number,  the  egocentric,  the  supraordinate,  the  contrast, 
the  miscellaneous,  and  the  speech-habit.  A  brief  definition  and  illus- 
tration of  them  is  as  follows  :3 

(1)  The  egocentric  reactions  may  be  typified  by — 

(a)  Predicate  reactions :  cloud-ominous,  flower-pretty,  crooked- 
line,  red-rose,  scratch-cat,  lion-roar,  money-wish,  invent- 
machine,  weasel-stealth,  beauty-rose,  safe-quite,  almost- 
grown,  sing-well,  never-decide,  nicely-very  (including 
the  responses  yes  and  no). 

(6)  Responses  in  the  form  of  proper  names:  citizen-New  York, 
boy-Johnny,  mountain-Kearsarge. 

(c)  Reactions  interpreting  the  stimulus  word  as  a  proper  name: 

eagles-newspaper,  park-square. 

(d)  Reaction  involving  the  response  of  a  pronoun:  hand-you, 

health-me. 

(e)  Interjections,   failures  of  response,   or  repetitions  of  the 

stimulus  word. 

(2)  The  supraordinate  category  is  confined  strictly  to  the  individual 

genus  order,  defined  in  such  examples  as:  priest-man,  potato- 
vegetable,  lily-flower,  cow-animal. 

(3)  The  contrast  group  is  composed,  of  course,  of  reactions  in  which 

the  response  meets  the  opposite  of  the  stimulus  and  is  made  up 
of  such  associations  as:  good-bad,  trouble-pleasure,  scatter- 
gather,  fertile-sterile,  and  the  like. 

(4)  The  miscellaneous  category  is  composed  essentially  of  the  remain- 

ing reactions  of  the  "inner"  type.  It  includes  about  45  per 
cent  of  all  associations. 

(5)  The  speech-habit  group  is  composed  of  associations  by  familiar 

phrase  (stand-pat),  word  compounding  (play-ground),  simple 
sound  associations  (tease-sneeze),  and  syntactic  changes  (high- 
height). 

Wells,  Psychol.  Review,  1911,  18,  p.  229. 

2Jung  and  Riklin,  Journ.  f.  Psychol.  u.  Neurol.,  1904,  3,  p.  55,  and  1904-05,  4,  p.  24;    Jung, 
Journ.  f.  Psychol.  u.  Neurol.,  1905-06,  6,  p.  1. 
'Wells,  Psychol.  Review,  1911,  18,  pp.  229-288. 


118 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


Individual  differences  are  shown  in  the  amount  of  incidence  of  these 
categories  of  associations,  especially  in  the  number  of  egocentric  reac- 
tions. In  respect  to  their  types  of  association  some  people  show  practice 
effects  and  others  do  not;  they  are, in  general,  less  marked  than  those 
of  the  association-reaction  tune.  Such  practice  effects  as  do  appear 
lie  rather  in  the  direction  of  greater  egocentricity  of  response. 


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FREE    ASSOCIATION. 


119 


The  present  subjects  show  more  egocentric  reactions  than  others  in 
Wells's  experience,  which  probably,  like  their  longer  reaction-times,  is  a 
function  of  their  greater  education.  There  are  no  extremes  save  in  the 
case  of  Subject  IX,  who  is  not  strictly  comparable,  but  the  average  is 
higher.  A  conspicuous  way  in  which  these  results  differ  from  any 
other  that  Wells  has  studied  is  in  respect  to  the  supraordinate  and 
contrast  reactions.  There  has  been  elsewhere  a  strong  negative  corre- 
lation between  these,  but  here  they  are  both  practically  absent. 

The  results  were  examined  to  see  if  the  normal  performance  was  in 
any  way  affected  by  alcohol.  The  mam  situation  is  depicted  in  the 
curves  of  figure  24,  in  which  the  supraordinate  and  contrast  associa- 
tions are  obviously  too  few  for  significant  comparison  between  normal 
and  alcohol  days.  The  letters  on  the  left  of  the  figure  represent  the 
various  association  categories  as  explained  above;  Eg.  means  egocen- 
tric; Su.,  supraordinate;  Co.,  contrast;  If.,  miscellaneous;  and  S.  H., 
speech-habit.  The  plotted  lines  indicate  the  number  of  associations 
under  each  category  that  occurred  in  each  of  the  six  experimental 
periods  (A-F)  of  each  experimental  day  for  the  subjects  II,  III,  IV, 
VI,  VII,  IX.  The  first  and  last  normal  days  are  represented  by  the 
solid  line  and  the  line  of  dashes,  respectively.  The  day  on  which  dose 
A  was  given  is  shown  by  a  dotted  line ;  dose  B  by  the  line  of  dots  and 
dashes. 

TABLE  15. — Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  miscellaneous  and  speech-habit  associations. 


Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Average  number  of  miscellaneous  associations  

22.5 

21.2 

Average  number  of  speech-habit  associations  

5.7 

7.1 
1  32 

1  32 

Per  cent  of  miscellaneous  decrease           

6.5 

23  0 

Do  the  curves  for  the  alcohol  days  differ  in  any  characteristic  way 
from  those  for  the  non-alcohol  days?  Subject  IX  shows  a  fairly  con- 
sistent increase  in  the  number  of  reactions  classified  under  the  category 
of  speech-habit.  Rudin,1  working  with  much  larger  doses  and  with 
the  " continuous"  form  of  the  association  experiment,  reports  an 
increase  in  the  " outer"  associations,  but  his  conception  of  this  category 
is  much  broader  than  what  is  here  formulated  as  speech-habit.  He 
quotes  observations  to  the  same  effect  by  Fiirer,2  who  employed  the 
discrete  association  method  as  here.  It  is  the  general  result  one  would 
expect  on  the  supposition,  frequently  stated,  that  alcohol  makes  easier 


^udin,  Kraepelin's  Psychol.  Arbeit.,  1904, 4,  p.  1. 

2Furer,    Bericht   iiber  den  V.  Internationallen  Congress  zur  Bekampfung  des  Missbrauchs 
geistigen  Getranke,  1896,  p.  367. 


120  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

the  lower  level,  motor  reactions.  However,  Subject  IX  is  the  only 
one  who  shows  it  in  the  curves.  The  speech-habit  category  does  not 
appear  to  be  consistently  affected  by  alcohol  in  any  other  subject. 
But  the  average  of  the  alcohol  days  shows  for  all  subjects  some  increase 
in  the  speech-habit  category;  the  miscellaneous  category  decreases  in 
5  cases  out  of  6,  the  total  change  being  the  same,  as  shown  in  table  15. 
The  effects  reported  by  Riidin  and  Fiirer  seem  established,  but 
require  much  heavier  doses  than  are  here  given  to  produce  them. 
The  present  effects,  though  small,  are  in  the  same  direction.  As 
regards  the  egocentric  category,  ordinarily  the  one  of  the  greatest 
psychological  meaning,  Subjects  II  and  III  show  the  nearest  approach 
to  a  consistent  tendency  in  the  direction  of  an  increase  of  egocentric 
responses  under  alcohol.  Nothing  can  possibly  be  read  into  the  figures 
for  the  remaining  categories  as  an  alcohol  effect.  There  is  no  doubt 
that,  as  Partridge1  remarks,  sufficient  alcohol  will  produce  great  changes 
in  the  character  of  associative  responses;  but  beyond  the  results  of  such 
experiments  as  those  of  Riidin  and  Fiirer,  or  the  unanalyzed  data  of 
Partridge,  we  are  unable  to  say  in  what  direction  they  are,  or  whether 
they  would  be  in  a  uniform  direction  for  different  subjects. 

"FREQUENCY"  OF  THE  RESPONSE  WORDS. 

The  Kent-Rosanoff  Frequency  Tables2  make  possible  this  sort  of 
measurement.  For  comparing  the  usualness  of  response  on  alcohol 
and  normal  days,  it  was  thought  necessary  to  divide  the  Kent-Rosanoff 
series  of  100  into  2  series  of  50  words  each,  so  that  comparison  should 
not  be  had  with  material  that  had  been  used  before.  The  two  series 
should,  of  course,  be  so  selected  as  to  show  in  central  tendency  the 
same  frequency  of  response  in  each.  It  did  not  seem  that  this  should 
be  left  to  chance,  for  a  series  of  words  like  dark,  mutton,  or  short,  would 
be  much  more  likely  to  have  "usual"  or  " frequent"  responses  than 
one  composed  of  words  like  anger,  religion,  or  memory.  Various  sys- 
tematic means  of  selecting  two  equal  series  were  tried,  that  finally 
employed  being  as  follows: 

So  far  as  was  known,  the  normal  median  frequency  value  of  the  Kent- 
Rosanoff  series  of  associations  is  represented  by  the  figures  9.0.  It 
was  then  determined  for  each  stimulus  word  how  many  subjects  out  of 
a  thousand  had  given  a  reaction  word  which  was  less  frequent  than  this. 
Thus,  in  the  case  of  tabk,  733  persons  did  so,  in  the  case  of  dark, 
352  persons,  etc.  All  the  words  were  arranged  in  the  order  of  the 

'Partridge,  Studies  in  the  Psychology  of  Intemperance,  New  York,  1912. 

*These  frequency  tables  were  prepared  on  the  following  basis:  "From  the  records  obtained 
from  these  subjects,  including  in  all  100,000  reactions,  we  have  compiled  a  series  of  tables,  one 
for  each  stimulus  word,  showing  all  the  different  reactions  given  by  1,000  subjects  in  response 
to  that  stimulus  word,  and  the  frequency  with  which  each  reaction  has  occurred."  (Kent  and 
Rosanoff,  Am.  Journ.  Insanity.  1910,  67,  pp.  37  and  317.) 


FREE   ASSOCIATION. 


121 


number  of  persons  who  had  given  responses  to  them  of  less  than  the 
above  standard  of  9.0.  These  words  were  then  paired,  and  one  of  each 
pair  assigned  to  either  series,  which  are  called  series  D  and  D'  respec- 
tively. The  order  of  the  words  was  kept  the  same  as  in  the  original 
Kent-Rosanoff  series,  so  the  two  lists  were  finally  constituted  as  follows : 


Table. 

Spider. 

Sickness. 

Carpet. 

Man. 

Working. 

Deep. 

Sour. 

Black. 

Trouble. 

Mutton. 

Soldier. 

Hand. 

Hard. 

Smooth. 

Stem. 

Chair. 

Dream. 

Sweet. 

Yellow. 

Whistle. 

Bread. 

Cold. 

Justice. 

Slow. 

Light. 

River. 

Memory. 

White. 

Hungry. 

Citizen. 

Priest. 

Foot. 

Ocean. 

KENT-ROSANOFF  WORDS,  SERIES  D'. 


KENT-ROSANOFF  WORDS,  SERIES  D. 

Head. 

Religion. 

Bitter. 

Hammer. 

Thirsty. 

Square. 

Loud. 

Thief. 

Bed. 

Heavy. 

Baby. 

Scissors. 

Quiet. 

Street. 

King. 

Blossom. 


One  or  the  other  of  these  constituted  the  fourth  series  of  each  experi- 
mental day.  The  figures  given  in  table  16,  as  c,  represent  the  median 
of  the  different  figures  for  the  usualness  of  each  response,  as  calculated 
from  the  Kent-Rosanoff  tables.  The  higher  this  figure,  the  more  usual 
are  the  subject's  responses.  The  results  of  these  calculations  for  the 
4  days  are  shown  in  table  16. 

TABLE  16. — Index  of  community  "c"  of  50  Kent-Rosanoff  words  normally  and  under  alcohol. 


Dark. 

Red. 

Blue. 

Music. 

Sleep. 

Stove. 

Soft. 

Anger. 

Long. 

Eating. 

Girl. 

Whisky. 

Mountain. 

High. 

Child. 

House. 

Earth. 

City. 

Comfort. 

Cabbage. 

Butter. 

Short. 

Eagle. 

Doctor. 

Fruit. 

Stomach. 

Lion. 

Butterfly. 

Lamp. 

Joy. 

Common. 

Boy. 

Tobacco. 

Woman. 

Health. 

Moon. 

Wish. 

Bible. 

Green. 

Beautiful. 

Sheep. 

Salt. 

Window. 

Bath. 

Cheese. 

Rough. 

Cottage. 

Afraid. 

Needle. 

Swift. 

Kind  of  experiment. 

Subject 
II. 

Subject 
III. 

Subject 
IV. 

Subject 
VI. 

Subject 
VII. 

Subject 
IX. 

Aver- 
age. 

Normal  I,  List  D  
Alcohol  (dose  A)  D' 

13.0 
5.7 
5.0 
2.0 

9.7 
3.5 
2.5 
2.3 

6.8 
2.7 
13.0 
7.0 

11.0 
5.9 
6.0 
2.0 

1.0 
0.7 
1.2 
0.5 

0.8 
0.5 
0.9 
0.8 

7.1 
3.2 

4.8 
2.4 

Alcohol  (dose  B)  D  
Normal  II,  List  D'  

Other  experiments  had  made  it  apparent  that  practice  increases  the 
individuality  of  the  response,  and  it  is  borne  out  in  these  figures.  It 
seems  certain,  also,  that  the  object  of  splitting  the  series,  namely,  to  get 
two  series  of  equal  tendency  in  respect  to  the  frequency  of  response, 
was  not  achieved,  at  least  for  this  group  of  subjects.  There  is  an 
obvious  tendency  for  Series  D'  to  show  more  unusual  responses  than 
Series  D  that  is  beyond  any  reasonable  expectation  from  practice.  In 
further  experiments  it  would  be  advisable  to  repeat  the  whole  Kent- 
Rosanoff  series.  This  unfortunate  difference  in  the  series  materially 
interferes  with  interpreting  the  results  in  reference  to  alcohol.  Marked 
alcohol  effects  are  clearly  not  present.  The  figures  for  the  alcohol  days 
are  generally  between  or  on  either  side  of  those  for  the  normal  days. 
Diagrammatically  the  relationship  is  shown  in  figure  25,  the  general 


122 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


4. 

(Normal) 


tendency  falling  somewhat  (4.0  to  4.75)  on  the  side  of  the  less-frequent 
responses  on  the  alcohol  days. 

In  figure  25  the  average  usualness  of  response  in  the  two  series  D 
and  D'  is  plotted  for  the  four  experimental  days.  The  dotted  lines 
give  a  theoretical  construction  of  the  probable  effect  of  equalizing  the 
two  series.  The  dotted  line,  6.6  to  3.4,  (  2  3 

shows  the  probable  effect  of  practice.  (Norim)    (Dose  A)   (Dose  B) 
The  difference  between   the   middle 
points  of  the  two  solid  lines  shows  the  7-° 
probable  effect  of  alcohol. 

In  reference  to  the  apparent  in- 
equality of  the  two  series  for  these 
subjects,  there  were  indications  that  55 
the  whole  psychological  "set"  of  the 
responses  was  different  from  that  of 
the  Kent-Rosanoff  tables,  as  is  shown 
in  table  17. 

An  illustration  from  table  17  may 
serve  to  make  it  clearer  for  those  who 
are  not  familiar  with  the  association 
experiment.  The  first  line  of  the 
table  relates  to  the  use  of  the  stimulus 
word  "table."  When  our  subjects 
heard  that  word,  in  50  per  cent  of  the  2.6 
cases  they  gave  the  associate  "cloth." 
The  frequency  of  that  association  is 
consequently  50  per  cent.  The  same  associate  also  occurred  in  the 
Kent-Rosanoff  experiments,  but  its  frequency  was  only  about  one-tenth 
as  great  as  in  our  subjects,  namely,  5.7  per  cent. 

TABLE  17. — Characteristic  differences  between  our  subjects  and 
those  of  KentrRosanoff. 


6.5 


6.0 


5.0 


4.5 


3.5 


3,0 


2.5 


D 

D 
Av.D-D' 
D' 

\ 

\  \ 

\\ 

\ 

S 

\) 

D 

Av.  D-D* 

A 

\ 

/ 

\\ 

/ 

D' 

V 

\ 

FIG.  25. — Curves  of  the  usualness  of 
the  association. 


Stimulus  and 
associate. 

Value  in  the 
Kent-Rosanoff 
tables. 

Proportional 
value  with 
present  subjects. 

p.  ct. 

p.  ct. 

table-cloth. 

5.7 

50.0 

deep-sea.  .  . 

9.0 

71.4 

slow-train.  . 

1.8 

42.9 

spider-web  . 

18.8 

71.4 

stem-pipe.  . 

7.0 

42.9 

stem-plant  . 

7.4 

42.9 

dream-sweet 

1.4 

50.0 

ocean-wave  . 

1.2 

57.1 

soft-pedal  .  . 

0 

28.6 

comfort—  horn 

•.. 

6.3 

42.9 

fruit-tree  .  .  . 

3.5 

42.9 

wish-bone.  . 

1.9 

57.1 

window—  pant 

.    . 

8.2 

71.4 

rough-sea.  . 

1.5 

42.9 

red-hair.... 

0.6 

42.9 

eagle-eye... 

1.2 

57.1 

FREE   ASSOCIATION.  123 

CORRELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  VARIOUS  MEASUREMENTS. 

Owing  to  the  exceptional  opportunity,  certain  measurements  of 
correlation  were  made,  though  they  do  not  bear  directly  on  the  alcohol 
question.  First,  with  reference  to  whether  those  who  have  more  usual 
responses  also  have  shorter  or  longer  reaction  times.  This  was  the 
only  definite  relationship  observed,  the  Pearson  r's1  being  in  the  four 
experiments  respectively  -0.75,  -0.50,  -0.53,  and  -0.33.  That  is, 
the  person  who  gives  usual  responses  seems  also  likely  to  have  shorter 
reaction-times,  as  is  not  difficult  to  understand.  It  does  not  follow 
so  pronouncedly  that  the  usual  reactions  of  a  certain  individual  are 
quicker  than  his  unusual  ones,  though  there  is  a  tendency  in  this 
direction.  There  appeared  no  significant  correlation  between  frequency 
and  pulse-change,  or  between  pulse-change  and  reaction-time.  Even 
when  extreme  cases  only  are  considered,  there  was  no  special  tendency 
for  the  longer  reaction-times  to  be  accompanied  by  larger  pulse-changes, 
as  table  18  shows. 

In  table  18  we  attempt  to  indicate  the  correlation  of  the  pulse-change 
and  reaction-times,  by  comparing  the  average  latency  of  the  5  reactions 
that  had  the  largest  pulse-change  with  the  average  latency  of  the  5 
reactions  that  had  the  least  pulse-change.  These  values,  together  with 
their  mean  variations,  are  entered  under  the  appropriate  legend  for  each 
subject.  A  comparison  of  the  average  reactions  is  entered  for  each 
subject  in  the  extreme  right-hand  column  as  the  average  excess  of 
reaction-tunes  with  high  pulse-change  over  those  with  low  pulse-change. 
The  extreme  irregularity  of  these  results  shows  an  absence  of  correlation 
between  pulse-change  and  reaction-tune.  This  is  interesting,  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  both  increased  pulse-rate  and  longtime-reactions  have  been 
suggested  as  indicators  of  the  same  thing,  i.  e.,  an  emotional  complex. 
(Coriat.2)  No  correlation  between  the  pulse-change  and  the  galvano- 
meter readings  taken  in  connection  with  the  so-called  psycho-galvanic 
reflex  was  observed. 

Table  19  gives  the  relationships  that  were  calculated  between  the 
reaction-time  and  the  frequency  of  response,  between  pulse-changes 
and  frequency,  and  between  reaction-time  and  pulse-changes,  series  D'. 

1Pearson's  coefficient  of  correlation,  r,  was  computed  according  to  the  familiar  formula: 
r=  n*^  in  which  the  x'a  are  the  series  of  deviations  from  the  median  in  the  first  group  of  data 

and  the  y's  are  the  deviations  from  the  median  in  the  second  group ;  <TI  is  the  standard  deviation 
of  the  first,  0-2  is  the  standard  deviation  of  the  second  group;  and  n  is  the  number  of  cases.  Zero 
resulting  from  such  a  computation  would  show  that  the  values  in  the  two  groups  have  no  correla- 
tion. Plus  values  in  the  coefficient  of  correlation  show  that  the  values  are  positively  correlated; 
t.  e.,  increase  in  one  group  is  more  or  less  regularly  accompanied  by  increase  in  the  other  group. 
Minus  values  in  the  coefficient  show  that  the  values  are  negatively  correlated,  i.  c.,  that  an 
increase  in  the  one  is  accompanied  by  a  decrease  in  the  other.  Absolute  positive  or  negative 
correlation  is  indicated  by  +1  and  - 1  respectively.  Our  results  indicate  that  in  our  experiments 
there  was  considerable  negative  correlation  between  the  duration  of  the  reaction  and  the  "fre- 
quency "of  the  response;  that  is,  the  longer  reaction-times  tended  to  correspond  with  the  less 
common  associates. 
2Coriat,  Journ.  Abnormal  Psychol.,  1909,  4,  pp.  1  and  261. 


124         PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

TABLE  18. — Correlation  between  pulse-change  and  reaction-time. 


Subject  and 
series. 

No.  of 
reactions 
in  aeries. 

High  puls.- 
ch&ng68 
(5  highert). 

Correspond- 
ing reaction- 
times. 

Low  pulse- 
changes 
(Slowest). 

Correspond- 
ing reaction- 
times. 

Average  excess 
reaction-times 
with  high  pulse- 
changes  over 
those  with  low 
pulse-changes. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Aver- 
age. 

Mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Subject  II: 
A  
B  
C  
D  

50 
48 
24 
31 
16 

12.4 
12.0 
13.2 
13.6 
11.4 

3.4 
2.8 
3.0 
2.4 
3.6 

308 
486 
243 
155 
253 

32 
382 
75 
17 

83 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

228 
195 
225 
159 
282 

48 
17 
59 
34 
112 

80 
291 
18 
-     4 
-  29 

E  
F 

Subject  III: 
A  
B 

C  
D  
E  
F  
Subject  IV: 
A  
B  

c 

21 
50 
25 

42 

22 
27 

6.6 
10.8 
8.4 
14.4 

5.0 

7.0 

1.2 

2.6 
1.2 
4.4 

0.8 
2.0 

205 
178 
222 
198 

249 
214 

33 

18 
70 
17 

71 

28 

0.8 
0 
0.4 
0 

1.0 
1.4 

0.2 
0 
0.5 

0 

0.4 
0.8 

195 
188 
197 
202 

203 
239 

34 

57 
26 
16 

33 
33 

10 
-  10 
25 

-     4 

46 
-  25 

'-"7 

D  
E.       .   . 

29 

9.6 

1.2 

215 

31 

0 

0 

222 

48 

F  
Subject  VI: 
A 

15 

43 
47 
43 
42 
50 
38 

49 
50 
45 
26 

48 
45 

33 
46 
26 
35 

29 

12.0 

16.0 
14.0 
15.2 
13.6 
18.4 
15.2 

15.6 
14.2 
11.8 
10.4 
12.4 
11.0 

20.0 
19.0 
18.2 
21.0 
18.2 

2.8 

3.2 
1.2 
0.6 
2.0 
2.8 
1.0 

1.2 
0.6 
1.4 
1.6 
1.2 
1.2 

2.6 
0.8 
1.4 
1.0 
2.2 

180 

292 
229 
253 
182 
224 
210 

219 
250 
253 
243 
189 
253 

334 
405 
275 
231 
265 

39 

68 
30 
11 
14 
39 
19 

33 
57 
27 
49 
16 
71 

67 
121 
32 
20 
23 

2.0 

4.8 
3.0 
3.4 
1.6 
1.4 
3.2 

2.0 
.4 
.6 
.0 
.2 
.2 

3.0 
2.6 
2.0 
4.8 
2.0 

0.8 

2.6 
0.8 
1.2 
0.8 
1.2 
0.6 

0.4 
1.2 
0.8 
0 
0.6 
0.6 

1.2 
1.4 
1.6 
2.2 
1.6 

271 

172 
173 
179 
173 
165 
209 

184 
193 
232 
181 
185 
220 

353 
198 
270 
255 
217 

26 

15 
25 
27 
14 
12 
44 

25 
28 
66 
8 
29 
27 

190 
13 
41 
36 
35 

-  91 

120 
56 
74 
9 
59 
1 

35 
57 
11 
62 

4 
33 

-   19 
207 
5 
-  24 
38 

B 

c 

D  

E  

F  

Subject  VII: 
A  
B  
C  
D  
E  
F  
Subject  IX: 
A  
B  
C  
D  
E 

F 

TABLE  19. — Measurements  of  relationships  calculated  from  Kent-Rosanoff  list  D'  for  normal 

experiment  II. 


Subject. 

No.  of 
cases. 

Reaction-time  and 
frequency. 

Pulse-change  and 
frequency. 

Reaction-time  and 
pulse-change. 

Preponderance 
of  +  signs 
over  median. 

Pearson's 

r 

Preponderance 
of  +  signs 
over  median. 

Pearson's 

r 

Preponderance 
of  +  signs 
over  median. 

Pearson's 

r 

ii.... 
m.... 

rv.... 

VI.... 
VII.... 
IX.... 

48 
50 
44 

48 
50 
23 

p.ct. 
46 
40 
23 
33 
48 
52 

-0.09 
-  .24 
-  .57 
-  .34 
+  .03 
+  .28 

p.ct. 
56 
56 
61 
50 
50 
39 

-0.11 
-  .03 
+  .27 
+  .06 
-  .14 
+  .28 

p.ct. 
55 
50 
45 
44 
58 
70 

+0.11 
-  .09 
-  .08 
+  .03 
+  .06 
+  .16 

FREE    ASSOCIATION.  125 

The  present  doses  of  alcohol  have  therefore  produced  in  the  associ- 
ative responses  only  very  few  and  small  consistent  effects  that  are 
measurable  by  available  techniques. 

SPECIAL  EPISODES. 

Special  episodes  occurring  in  the  course  of  the  experiments  as  spon- 
taneous remarks  by  the  subject  and  the  like,  were  noted  in  shorthand. 
Two  of  these  occurrences  are  worth  mentioning  here.  On  two  occa- 
sions Subject  II  dropped  asleep  between  association  words  and  had  to 
be  aroused.  The  experimental  data  in  this  connection  were : 

Feb.  3,  1914,  5h  30"  p.  m.  series:  Feb.  17,  1914,  5h  25m  p.  m.  series: 

pattern-scissors.  scissors-cut, 

cliff-  (asleep;    roused    after  20    to    30  quiet-  (asleep). 

seconds) . 
level-rule.  street-number. 

The  point  of  these  occurrences  is  that  a  subject  within  10  seconds 
after  responding  properly  in  an  experiment  involving  some  complexity 
of  mental  process  could  so  completely  lose  consciousness  as  to  be  able 
to  make  no  response  at  all,  and  after  arousal  could  immediately  take 
up  the  process  at  apparently  the  same  level  as  before. 

The  experiment  on  March  6,  1914,  with  Subject  VII  showed  a  very 
marked  fluctuation  in  the  number  of  speech-habit  associations  corre- 
sponding with  a  change  that  the  subject  described  in  his  mental  condi- 
tion. The  numbers  of  the  speech-habit  associations  in  the  successive 
series  were  as  follows : 

Series 4h  KF  p.  m.    4h  35m  p.  m.    5h  05m  p.  m.    5h  30"  p.  m.    6h  00™  p.  m.    6h  20m  p.  m. 

Speech-habit 
associations.  10  8  16  22  18  8 

There  is  an  increase  in  the  speech-habit  associations  which  later  falls 
off.  At  the  end  of  the  5h  05m  p.m.  series  the  subject  complained  of 
sleepiness.  At  the  end  of  the  5h  30m  p.m.  series  he  says :  "  I  notice  that  I 
am  using  compound  words  to-day;  that  is,  the  word  comes  right  after  it. 
I  am  quite  tired.  My  decision  follows  the  path  of  least  resistance."  At 
the  end  of  the  6h  20m  p.m.  series,  when  the  speech-habit  reactions  have 
fallen  back  to  the  starting-point,  he  says:  "I  am  not  sleepy  now  as  I  was 
then ;  feel  more  comfortable.  The  associations  seem  different ;  for  smoke 
I  might  now  say  tobacco,  while  before  I  would  be  more  apt  to  say  stack." 

This  condition  of  normal  sleepiness  seems,  therefore,  related  in  the 
subject  to  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  associations  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  alcohol  effects,  but  to  a  far  greater  amount.  An 
abnormally  great  number  of  speech-habit  reactions  was  also  noted  in 
this  subject  in  the  first  series  on  February  27.  Here  the  subject  states 
that  he  "does  not  understand  the  words  clearly,  having  a  cold  which 
interferes  with  his  hearing."  Probably  every  worker  with  the  experi- 
ment has  had  the  experience,  with  Wells,  that  indistinct  hearing  of  the 
stimulus  word  conduces  to  speech-habit  reaction. 


CHAPTER  V. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PROCESS  OF  MEMORIZING. 

There  have  been  no  complete  systematic  investigations  of  the  effect 
of  alcohol  on  the  memory.  Only  a  few  of  its  many  phases  have  been 
studied,  and  these  have  been  selected  apparently  at  random.  The 
relatively  inaccessible  work  of  Vogt1  seems  to  be  the  only  extensive  study 
of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  ability  to  learn  logical  material  in  metrical 
form.  The  pioneer  work  of  Kraepelin2  and  the  later  work  of  the 
Kraepelin  school  is  based  on  the  continuous  memorizing  of  series  of 
numbers.  But  since  number  memory  and  poetry  memory  are  special 
forms  with  their  own  peculiar  laws,  our  knowledge  of  the  effect  of 
alcohol  on  the  memorizing  process  is  still  very  incomplete.  Possibly 
this  is  because  all  the  classical  techniques  make  such  demands  on  the 
intelligent  cooperation  of  the  subject  that  they  are  poorly  adapted  for 
alcohol  experiments.  Whatever  the  cause,  lack  of  investigation  of 
the  changes  in  memory  that  are  affected  by  alcohol  is  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  deficiencies  in  our  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the 
neural  tissue.  This  deficiency  is  the  more  striking  because,  in  any 
psychological  view  of  normal  life,  memory  is  a  fundamental  psycho- 
physical  process.  It  is  the  more  embarrassing  because  quantitative 
objective  techniques  for  measuring  changes  in  memory  are  so  rare. 

The  classical  method  that  seemed  to  us  likely  to  make  the  least 
demands  on  the  active  cooperation  of  the  subject  was  the  memory-span 
method  that  in  many  hands  has  proved  so  valuable  an  indication  of 
individual  differences.  But  we  found  in  preliminary  trials  that  when 
given  hi  sufficient  number  to  yield  data  for  satisfactory  statistical 
treatment,  even  the  memory-span  experiments  seem  exacting,  tedious, 
and  often  repulsive  to  the  average  subject.  Besides  this,  they  seem  to 
be  subject  to  enormous  practice  effect,  as  well  as  an  indefinite  number 
of  unknown  subjective  and  objective  conditions  that,  in  view  of  the 
principles  of  this  research,  completely  disqualified  them  for  our  use. 

The  memory-span  method,  like  most  of  the  many  recent  methods  for 
testing  the  memory  process,  has  been  developed  as  a  short  cut  to  the 
Ebbinghaus3  method  of  complete  memorization.  The  latter  is  yet  the 
standard  method,  but  it  is  enormously  time-consuming,  tedious,  and 
fatiguing.  It  is  impractical  for  untrained  subjects.  In  such  studies  as 
ours  some  short  cut  is  essential  if  memory  measurements  are  to  be 
included  at  all.  The  underlying  principles  of  the  short  cut  that  we 

lVogt,  Norsk  Magazin  f.  Laegevidenskaben,  1910,  8,  p.  605. 

5  Krai -poll  n,  Ueber  die  Beeinflussung  einfacher  psychischer  Vorgange  durch  einige  Arsneimittel, 
Jena,  1892. 
'Ebbinghaua.  Ueber  das  Gedftchtnis,  Leipsic,  1885. 

126 


THE    PROCESS   OF   MEMORIZING.  127 

finally  adopted  followed  as  far  as  possible  the  original  complete  memo- 
rization method  of  Ebbinghaus,  except  that  in  our  arrangement  memo- 
rization need  not  be  completed.  Ebbinghaus  measured  the  total 
number  of  repetitions  that  it  took  to  enable  a  subject  to  learn  a  series 
of  nonsense  syllables,  that  is,  to  speak  the  words  of  the  series  without 
prompting.  We  sought  to  measure  the  value  of  each  repetition  by  its 
saving  in  the  reaction-time  of  successive  members  of  the  series  as  they 
were  exposed  seriatim.  We  measured  the  reaction-time  of  each  word, 
instead  of  that  of  the  group  process.  An  analogous  short  cut  in  the 
psychology  of  reading  is  to  measure  the  reaction  to  individual  words 
instead  of  the  total  time  it  takes  to  read  a  page.  In  certain  respects  our 
method  resembles  the  Muller  and  Pilzecker's1  Treffemethode,  but 
instead  of  " paired"  associates,  our  associates  were  continuous,  and 
the  decrease  of  the  reaction-time  in  successive  repetitions  of  the  series 
showed  the  increase  of  perse veration.  The  technique  is  the  direct 
outgrowth  of  Professor  G.  E.  Muller' s  lectures  on  memory  measure- 
ments, which  one  of  us  was  fortunate  enough  to  attend  at  the  University 
of  Gottingen  in  the  winter  of  1910-11.  We  would  hereby  express  our 
obligation  to  Professor  Muller,  while  expressly  disclaiming  for  him  any 
faults  in  our  technique.  According  to  the  theory  of  our  method,  any 
saving  of  time  between  the  reaction-time  in  responding  to  the  first 
exposure  of  a  series  of  words  and  the  reaction-time  in  responding  to  the 
second  exposure  must  be  due  to  the  influence  of  memory.  The  memory 
process  itself  would  be  complete  when  the  reaction-time  for  each 
member  of  the  series  is  zero  or  less;  that  is,  when  each  member  of  the 
word  series  could  be  pronounced  before  it  appeared,  as  in  the  complete 
memorization  of  Ebbinghaus. 

This  method  seemed  to  satisfy  our  demand  for  a  practiced  process. 
To  be  sure,  words  are  not  commonly  read  during  a  gradual  exposure; 
certainly  not  during  the  kind  of  exposure  that  was  used  in  our  experi- 
ments.- But,  after  all,  something  not  so  very  different  appears  to  be 
involved  in  all  rapid  reading.  Only  a  part  of  the  words  of  a  page  are 
actually  fixated  by  the  reader.  Most  of  them  are  read  chiefly  or  partly 
in  indirect  vision  where  the  visual  cues  to  the  identity  of  the  words  are 
few.  The  more  familiar  the  text  the  fewer  the  words  that  are  actually 
fixated,  and  the  more  significant  become  the  imperfectly  seen  cues  of 
extra-foveal  vision,  and  the  more  important  are  the  central  or  memory 
factors  in  the  process.  Fundamentally,  then,  the  method  is  as  practiced 
and  natural  as  the  process  of  reading  itself. 

A  special  device  to  procure  a  slow,  gradual  increase  in  the  visual 
exposure  of  the  words,  so  that  reaction  differences  might  be  exaggerated, 
was  to  expose  the  words  backwards  one  letter  at  a  time.  This  insured 
a  gradually  increasing  number  of  cues  to  the  identity  of  the  word,  until, 

Duller  and  Pilzecker,  Experimentelle  Beitrage  zur  Lehre  vom  Gedachtnis,  Zeitachr.  f.  Psychol., 
Erganzungsband,  1,  1900. 


128          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

as  the  first  letter  appeared,  the  visual  word  was  complete.  We  exposed 
the  words  backward  instead  of  forward  because  the  final  letter  of  a  word 
is  the  least  definite  cue  that  could  be  given.  Final  letters  are  much  less 
suggestive  than  initial  letters.  Moreover,  when  the  end  letter  is  shown 
first,  the  correct  pronunciation  can  not  begin  unless  the  whole  word 
is  revived  in  consciousness.  If  the  initial  letters  were  shown  first, 
articulation  might  start  correctly  before  the  word  was  fully  known. 

In  spite  of  its  theoretical  plausibility,  its  relatively  small  demands 
on  the  active  cooperation  of  the  subject,  and  the  probability  that  it 
corresponds  more  or  less  closely  to  a  common  practice  of  extra-labora- 
tory life,  our  method  for  obtaining  quantitative  expression  of  changes 
in  retentiveness  is  the  one  of  our  techniques  which  developed  most 
serious  defects  in  use.  We  incline  to  believe,  however,  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  technique  is  valid  and  useful,  and  that  only  the  form  in 
which  we  used  it  is  faulty.  Its  defects  are  not  peculiar  to  our  technique. 
They  are  due  to  the  difficulty  of  securing  really  homogeneous  material 
for  memorizing.  This  constitutes  a  universal  source  of  difficulty  in  all 
quantitative  investigation  of  the  memory  process.  Vogt1  remarks  it 
in  his  poetic  material.  Differences  in  the  associability  of  material 
exists  even  in  the  Muller-Schumann2  development  of  Ebbinghaus  non- 
sense syllables.  Only  the  elaborate  scheme  of  Muller  and  Pilzecker3 
for  presenting  the  material  in  every  possible  order  completely  obviates 
this  source  of  error.  In  the  effort  to  equalize  the  associability  of  the 
memory  material,  Ebbinghaus,4  and,  following  him,  most  of  the  Ger- 
man investigators  emphasize  the  value  of  nonsense  syllables.  In  his 
excellent  review  of  the  various  memory  techniques,  Pohlmann6  regards 
nonsense  syllables  as  the  best  experimental  material.  In  English, 
however,  nonsense  syllables  are  not  so  satisfactory  as  they  are  in 
German.  As  Miss  Gamble6  has  pointed  out,  special  rules  are  necessary 
for  the  construction  of  English  nonsense  syllables,  while  "no  devices 
seem  to  make  the  reading  and  spelling  of  English  nonsense  syllables  a 
simple  matter  for  all  American  college  students."  Our  vowel  signs 
are  relatively  few  and  superlatively  ambiguous  without  arbitrary  rules. 
There  are  very  few  nonsense  syllables  of  three  letters  that  may  not  be 
pronounced  so  as  to  resemble  or  to  recall  a  significant  word  in  some 
language  that  the  subject  may  know.  Differences  in  pronunciation  in 
successive  repetitions  may  completely  change  the  series.  There  is  no 
way  by  which  the  spelling  can  be  guaranteed  to  give  the  same  series  of 
words  to  two  different  subjects  except  by  the  adoption  of  artificial  rules. 

'Vogt,  Norsk  Magasin  f.  Laegevidenskaben,  1910,  8,  p.  605. 

'Muller  and  Schumann,  Zeituchr.  f.  Psychol.,  1894,  6. 

'Mailer  and  Pilzecker,  Ezperimentelle  Beitrage  iur  Lehre  vom  Gedachtnis,  Zeitschr.  f.  Psychol., 
Erganzungsband,  1,  1900. 

'Ebbinghaus,  Ueber  das  Gedachtnis,  Leipsic,  1885. 

'Pohlmann,  Experimentelle  Beitrage  sur  Lehre  vom  Gedachtnis,  Berlin,  1906. 

•Gamble,  Wellesley  College  Studies  in  Psychology,  No.  1.  Psychological  Monograph  No.  43. 
1909;  esp.  pp.  18-23. 


THE    PROCESS   OF   MEMORIZING. 


129 


Believing  that,  in  English  at  least,  real  words  represent  the  least 
individual  differences  in  apprehension,  we  abandoned  the  nonsense 
syllables  for  real  English  words.  In  some  respects  at  least  it  is  a  dis- 
tinct advantage  not  to  complicate  the  word  series  in  memory  tests  by 
a  superposed  letter  series.  In  the  case  of  words,  we  may  assume  that 
the  association  between  their  spelling  and  the  pronunciation  is  f  amiliar 
and  fixed.  Drawing  from  an  equally  well  associated  and  equally 
revivable  mass  of  possible  material,  the  process  of  memorizing  words 
is  not  complicated  by  the  necessity  for  memorizing  the  constitution 
of  the  members  of  the  series.  It  is  concerned  solely  with  their  serial 
connection. 

APPARATUS  AND  TECHNIQUE. 

Normal  series  of  12  four-letter  words  were  printed  on  strips  of  white 
paper,  52  cm.  in  length,  so  that  each  word  occupied  the  same  proportion 
of  a  4  cm.  space.  Such  a  slip  encircled  the  50  cm.  Blix-Sandstrom 
kymograph  drum,  leaving  2  cm.  spare  space  to  indicate  the  beginning 
of  the  series,  as  well  as  to  accommodate  the  paper  clip  that  held  the 
strip  of  words  to  the  drum.  A  circular  screen,  with  a  slit  large  enough 
to  expose  two  letters  at  a  time,  covered  the  drum  and  consequently  the 
series  of  words,  except  as  each  word  was  exposed  letter  by  letter  when 
the  drum  revolved.  The  screen  and  electrical  connections  are  shown 
diagrammatically  in  figure  26. 


FIG.  26. — Diagram  of  the  connections  for  memory  experiment. 

As  each  word  was  perceived  the  subject  spoke  it  into  the  voice  key 
(for  description  of  this  key,  see  Chapter  III,  p.  97),  and  so  broke  the 
circuit  of  an  electric  marker  that  wrote  the  record  of  the  reaction  on 
the  same  cylinder  which  carried  the  words.  Since  both  stimulus  and 
reaction  records  were  on  the  same  evenly  rotating  drum,  the  correlation 
of  the  two  was  permanent  and  mechanically  accurate.  Any  advance 
of  the  reaction  record  along  its  base-line  on  the  second  revolution  of 
the  drum  showed  the  effect  of  memory  and  was  taken  as  its  measure. 
Since  the  cylinder  moved  at  a  rate  of  10  mm.  per  second,  the  change 


130  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

could  be  read  directly  in  terms  of  0.01".  These  values  are  entered 
directly  as  a  measure  of  the  memory  process  in  table  20,  under  the 
column  "Saving." 

The  device  for  the  gradual  exposure  of  the  words  and  concurrent 
registration  of  the  reactions  was  entirely  satisfactory.  Our  difficulty 
lay  in  assuming  that  any  two  of  our  series  of  words  were  quantitatively 
comparable  series  of  stimuli.  They  were  not  equal,  in  spite  of  our  precau- 
tion to  make  them  so.  The  series  were  made  by  chance,  in  a  manner 
analogous  to  that  recommended  by  Muller  and  Schumann.1  We  first 
made  a  dictionary  of  4-letter  words — nouns,  adverbs,  and  prepositions. 
Then  we  drew  separate  letters  from  two  alphabets  at  random.  The 
drawing  from  the  first  alphabet  indicated  the  initial  letter;  from  the 
second,  the  end  letter  of  the  word  to  be  selected.  In  case  there  was  no 
such  word  we  drew  again.  If  two  successive  words  made  sense,  or 
seemed  to  suggest  one  another,  one  of  them  was  either  discarded  com- 
pletely or  relegated  to  a  different  part  of  the  series.  This  method  of 
selecting  words  has  certain  technical  advantages,  and  is  about  as  much 
a  matter  of  chance  as  it  is  possible  to  devise.  But  the  various  series 
proved  to  be  of  quite  unequal  difficulty  for  some  of  the  subjects,  and, 
what  is  more  significant,  each  series  proved  to  be  of  unequal  difficulty 
for  different  subjects.  Some  subjects  discovered  connections  in  the 
most  unpromising  material.  One  subject  (Subject  VII)  regularly 
fitted  the  words  into  a  "story"  as  they  came,  and  so  completely  learned 
all  but  one  of  the  word  series  in  three  exposures  or  less.  In  order  to 
find  measurable  differences  in  his  performances,  the  quantities  which 
are  entered  under  "Saving "  in  his  case  are  based  on  the  savings  effected 
by  the  first  repetition  of  the  series.  His  performance  was  unique,  but  it 
shows  one  of  the  difficulties  of  getting  uniform  material  for  all  subjects. 

Our  18  series  of  12  words  each  were  divided  into  3  groups  of  6  series 
each.  A  group  of  6  furnished  one  series  for  each  of  the  6  regular  periods 
of  an  experimental  session.  Different  groups  were  given  on  successive 
days.  This  was  the  main  defect  of  our  method.  Neither  the  different 
series  on  the  same  day  nor  the  different  groups  on  succeeding  days  are 
comparable.  Later  trials  show  that  for  purposes  of  determining  the 
effect  of  a  drug  we  would  have  done  better  to  use  only  one  group  for  all 
days  alike.  With  such  an  arrangement  the  normal  days  at  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  the  experiments  on  a  given  subject  would  furnish  a 
sufficient  base-line  to  show  the  gradual  development  of  residual  memory. 
For  a  single  repetition  of  72  words  once  a  week,  this  residual  memory  of 
two  repetitions  would  probably  be  slight.  Owing  to  the  differences 
between  series  the  differences  between  the  first  and  succeeding  series 
on  the  same  day,  on  which  our  statistical  elaboration  of  the  results  of 
the  other  tests  is  based,  are  entirely  meaningless  in  the  memory  series. 

Wuller  and  Schumann,  Zeitachr.  f.  Psychol.,  1894,  6. 


THE    PROCESS    OF    MEMORIZING. 


131 


We  have  been  forced,  therefore,  if  the  results  are  to  be  used  at  all,  to 
base  our  statistical  expression  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  average 
savings  on  the  different  days. 

TABLE  20. — Memory  measurements. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject. 

Normal 
I. 

Alcohol 
(dose  A). 

Normal 
II. 

Subject. 

Normal 
I. 

Alcohol 
(dose  A). 

Normal 
II. 

"°     02 

f-l     « 

o  'C 

I 

-3     73 

M 

1 

1  Word 
1  series. 

9 
1 

Word 

|  series. 

9 

1 

Word 
1  series. 

si 

1 

Word 
1  series.  | 

1 

1 

Normal  sub- 

Normal sub- 

jects: 

jects  —  Con. 

II.... 

1 

1,091 

8 

ll,087   13 

1,362 

IX.... 

1 

890 

7 

ll,000 

14 

1,290 

2 

945 

9 

929   14 

1,130 

2 

1,120 

8 

535 

15 

659 

3 
4 

859 
510 

10 
11 

850   15 

517   16 

801 
1,042 

3 

4 

1,020 
820 

9 
10 

877 
1,004 

16 
17 

812 

787 

5 

590 

12 

1,155   17 

991 

5 

930 

11 

925 

Av. 

887 

Av. 

799 

7 

1,243  Av. 

1,065 

Av. 

956 

Av. 

835 

Av. 

939 

1 

1862 

VI.... 

1 

841 

7 

(2) 

13 

1,045 

2 

385 

2 

655 

8 

295 

14 

773 

3 

1,183 

3 

610 

9 

829 

15 

775 

4 

832 

4 

460 

10 

915 

16 

765 

Av. 

800 

5 

600 

11 

1,033 

Av. 

839 

6 

936 

12 

1,272 

13  ll,105 

Av. 

684 

Av. 

869 

14 

1,295 

1 

15 

955 

2 

onf 

16 

914 

17 

occ 

3 
4 

1,045 
692 

Av. 

oDO 

1,007 

5 

730 

X.... 

7 

990 

13   ll,595 

Av. 

843 

8 

855   14  i  1,431 

13 
14 

1  1,250 
1,145 

9 
10 

1,150   15 
932   16 

816 

885 

15 

871 

11 

1,015 

17    1,154 

16 

550 

12 

938 

Av. 

1,071 

Av. 

855 

Av. 

980 

VII.... 

1 

1,074 

7 

ll,740 

13 

1,779 

Psychopathic 
subjects: 

2 

1,880 

8 

1,910 

14 

1,612 

XI.... 

8 

285 

13 

\Qf% 

17 

619 

3 

1,460 

9 

690 

15 

223 

9 

698 

14 

284 

18 

472 

4 

1,800 

10 

1,040 

Av. 

1,205 

10 

528 

15  i     756 

Av. 

545 

5 

1,580 

11 

850 

Av. 

504 

16 

510 

Av. 

1,559 

12 

1,060 

Av. 

517 

Av. 

1,110 

7 
8 

ll,SOO 
1,417 

XII  .... 

7 
8 
9 

781 
1,017 
958 

13 
14 
15 

1  1,871 
869 
1,065 

4 
5 
6 

587 
594 
520 

Av 

i',268 

10 
Av. 

694 
862 

16 
17 

777 
711 

Av. 

567 

VIII.... 

1 

940 

7 

*6U 

Av. 

855 

2 

990 

8 

821 

3 

1,050 

9 

1,371 

4 

1,040 

10 

1,046 

Av. 

1,005 

11 

1,095 

12 

536 

Av. 

974 

1Values  for  first  periods  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was  given  and  are  therefore  not 
included  in  the  averages. 
'Disturbed. 


132 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


EXPERIMENTAL  PROCEDURE. 

The  subject  sat  before  a  horizontally  placed  Blix-Sandstrom  kymo- 
graph, in  line  with  its  axis  of  rotation  in  position  I  (fig.  1);  through  a 
slit  14  mm.  wide  in  the  cylindrical  screen,  which  was  concentric  with 
the  kymograph  drum,  a  series  of  4-letter  words  was  exposed  backwards, 
i.  e.j  in  such  a  way  that  the  last  letter  of  each  word  appeared  in  the  slit 
of  the  screen  first  and  the  first  letter  appeared  last.  A  series  consisted 
of  12  words.  Each  series  was  repeated  3  times.  During  the  first 
reading  of  the  series  each  word  must  have  been  completely  exposed 
before  the  first  letter  was  known  and  before  the  word  was  spoken.  In 
the  two  succeeding  readings,  residua  of  the  first  series  effected  a  certain 
saving  in  reaction-time.  The  word  might  then  be  spoken  while  one  or 

TABLE  21. — Effect  of  alcohol  on  memory. 
[Average  values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject. 

Average  saving. 

Effect  of 
alcohol1 
(alcohol  - 
normal). 

Percentile 
effect.1 

Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Normal  subjects: 
II  
VI 

932 
761 
1,382 
1,005 
921 
980 

939 
856 
1,189 
974 
881 
1.071 

<T 
+     7 
+  95 
-193 
-  31 
-  40 
+  91 
-  12 

-     7 
+  141 
+  67 

p.ct. 

+  0.6 
+  8.7 
-13.1 
-  4.1 
-  3.9 
+  7.0 
-  0.8 

-   1.3 
+  16.0 
+  7.3 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

Average  

Psychopathic  subjects: 
XI  
XII  
Average  

524 

714 

517 
855 

'Effect  on  the  average  saving  equals  alcohol  average  minus  normal 


2Percentile  effect  equals  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  average  saving 
divided  by  the  average  saving  of  the  corresponding  normals  of  the  day. 

more  of  the  letters  were  still  hidden.  In  a  perfect  score  each  word  was 
spoken  before  any  letter  appeared  on  the  second  or  third  exposure. 
Perfect  scores  often  occurred  for  the  first  word  of  a  series.  Only  one 
subject  regularly  achieved  perfect  scores  for  practically  all  the  series 
in  three  exposures.  The  saving  in  reaction-time  between  the  first  and 
the  two  succeeding  exposures  is  regarded  as  a  measure  of  the  advance- 
ment of  the  memorizing  process. 

With  the  drum  revolving  at  the  rate  of  10  mm.  per  second  and  the 
words  4  cm.  apart,  the  tune-interval  from  the  beginning  of  one  word  to 
the  beginning  of  the  next  was  4".  The  duration  of  the  whole  series  was 
48"  for  the  words,  plus  2"  for  the  spare  space  at  the  end  of  the  series. 
The  whole  memory  experiment  of  three  repetitions  thus  lasted  about 
3  minutes.  The  relative  shortness  of  the  experiment  is  of  double 
advantage;  it  not  only  conserves  time  during  the  experimental  period, 


THE   PROCESS   OF   MEMORIZING.  133 

but  it  saves  the  subject  from  the  tedium  and  ennui  of  the  classical 
methods. 

Relatively  slight  disturbances  of  attention  during  the  series  show 
immediately  and  directly  in  the  record  by  a  lengthening  of  the  corre- 
sponding reaction-time  beyond  that  of  the  previous  exposure.  Such 
disturbances  are  universal  after  a  false  reaction  has  been  made.  They 
are  difficult  to  score  simply,  but  should  doubtless  be  considered  in  some 
way  in  the  results.  False  reactions  must  be  marked  on  the  record  by 
the  experimenter.  Their  time  was  excluded  in  computing  the  total 
saving,  but  a  record  of  them  was  kept  for  comparison  with  future 
experiments. 

SUMMARY  OF  THE  EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  MEMORY. 

The  results  of  our  experiments  on  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  memory  are 
summarized  in  table  20.  While  different  subjects  vary  widely  in  the 
effect  of  alcohol  on  the  memory  process  as  measured  by  our  technique, 
the  total  results  show  no  predominant  tendency  of  alcohol  on  the  main 
group  of  subjects.  As  far  as  our  measurements  go,  rote  memory  (pri- 
mary retention)  is  neither  better  nor  worse  after  small  doses  of  alcohol. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  most  pronounced  improvement  of 
memory  after  alcohol  was  found  with  Subject  VI,  who  frequently  dif- 
fered notably  from  the  group  in  other  experiments.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances,  he  was  the  most  easily  confused  of  the  group.  He  was 
particularly  liable  to  become  disturbed  and  to  get  "rattled,"  as  he  put 
it.  The  most  pronounced  decrease  of  capacity  after  alcohol  was  shown 
by  Subject  VII,  who  depended  least  on  simple  perseveration  and  most 
on  quickness  in  forming  artificial  associations  to  memorize  the  series. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  the  same  depression  of  the  capacity  for  making 
new  associations  that  decreased  the  effectiveness  of  Subject  VII  may 
have  relieved  Subject  VI  from  intercurrent  mental  disturbances. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  SENSORY  THRESHOLD  FOR  FARADIC 
STIMULATION  (MARTIN  MEASUREMENTS). 

In  a  series  of  papers  published  in  the  American  Journal  of  Physiology 
between  the  years  1908  and  1911,  Professor  E.  G.  Martin,1  of  the 
Harvard  Medical  School,  developed  a  method  for  measuring  induction 
shocks.  Starting  with  a  properly  calibrated  inductorium  of  standard 
construction,  it  is  now  possible  to  include  in  a  single  equation  all  the 
various  physical  factors  which  are  involved  in  the  production  of  an 
induction  shock  of  threshold  intensity.  The  absolute  threshold  of  a 
tissue  may  be  expressed  in  units  which  are  directly  comparable  wherever 
properly  calibrated  instruments  are  used.  To  these  units  Professor 
Martin  has  given  the  name  )8  units.  Their  use  involves  more  experi- 
mental data  and  considerably  more  mathematical  elaboration  of  the 
data  than  has  previously  been  customary  in  measurements  of  threshold 
for  Faradic  stimulation.  The  experimental  procedure,  however,  is 
simple  and  the  mathematical  work  with  Wilbur's2  simplification  of  the 
Martin  equation  is  now  neither  difficult  nor  extravagantly  time-con- 
suming. For  the  theoretical  derivation  of  the  various  formulae,  we 
must  refer  to  Professor  Martin's  papers,  especially  to  his  book,  "The 
Measurement  of  Induction  Shocks." 

We  can  scarcely  overestimate  the  advantages  to  experimental  psy- 
chology of  a  sensory  threshold  technique  in  which  the  stimuli  can  be 
expressed  in  absolute  units  of  electrical  energy.  The  high  standards  of 
instrumental  accuracy,  the  ease  of  manipulation,  and  general  avail- 
ability of  electrical  stimuli,  the  simplicity  of  the  skin  receptors,  and 
their  freedom  from  complicated  adjustments  seem  to  make  the  thresh- 
old for  Faradic  stimulation  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  sensory- 
threshold  measurements  at  our  disposal.  The  recent  criticisms  of 
inductorium  calibration  by  Erlanger  and  Carrey3  do  not  affect  the 
fundamental  value  of  the  method  (Martin4).  Like  all  threshold  meas- 
urements, however,  in  which  one  must  depend  on  the  verbal  reports  of 
the  subject,  the  Martin  threshold  probably  depends  for  highest  accu- 
racy on  the  subject's  training  in  observation.  There  is  at  present  no 
means  for  analyzing  the  sensory  process,  to  determine  in  how  far 
apparent  variations  in  the  threshold  of  any  particular  subject  depend 
on  changes  in  central  conditions  of  perception,  on  interest,  attention, 
alertness,  etc.  Our  experience  suggests  that  some  indicator  for  the 

•Martin,     a.  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1908,  22,  p.  116. 

6.  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1909,  24,  p.  269. 

e.  The  Measurement  of  Induction  Shocks,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  1912. 
Martin,  Bigelow,  and  Wilbur,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1914,  33,  p.  415. 
'ErlanKer  and  Carrey,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1914,  35,  p.  377. 
4Martin,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1914-15,  36,  p.  223. 

134 


SENSORY  FARADIC  THRESHOLD.  135 

grade  of  attention  is  of  vital  importance  to  satisfactory  measurements 
of  the  human  threshold  by  the  Martin  method  in  untrained  subjects. 

Of  scarcely  secondary  importance  seems  to  be  the  precise  technique 
by  which  the  operator  satisfies  his  scientific  conscience  that  any  given 
position  of  the  secondary  coil  of  the  inductorium  corresponds  to  the 
probable  true  threshold  of  the  subject.  As  Grabfield  and  Martin1  state, 
"The  threshold  position  found  by  moving  the  coil  in,  is  often  several 
millimeters  away  from  the  threshold  position  moving  it  out."  To 
make  their  experimental  conditions  uniform,  Grabfield  and  Martin  dis- 
carded the  threshold  readings  which  were  found  when  the  coil  was 
moving  out1  (p.  304).  It  is  not  impossible,  however,  that  this  very 
discrepancy  may  serve  as  an  indicator  of  the  grade  of  attention,  since 
variations  of  attention  seem  to  produce  it,  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
other  ground  for  its  existence.  In  our  experience  we  have  always  found 
successive  threshold  positions,  even  in  the  same  direction,  to  vary  more 
or  less.  Our  earliest  measurements  were  based  on  the  standard  psycho- 
physical  method  of  averaging  the  threshold  values  found  by  increasing 
and  decreasing  the  stimulus  respectively.  It  is  commonly  assumed  in 
psycho-physics  that  the  true  threshold  lies  between  the  apparent  thresh- 
old, which  is  found  when  a  subthreshold  stimulus  is  increased,  and 
that  found  by  decreasing  a  suprathreshold  stimulus.  The  difficulty 
with  this  procedure  in  the  present  instance  is  probably  due  to  a  fatigue 
of  attention.  A  somewhat  later  procedure  was  to  take  the  highest 
value  that  was  found  three  times  out  of  five.  This  obviously  produced 
fatigue  effects,  since  the  first  values  were  regularly  higher  than  the 
later  ones.  All  values  reported  in  this  paper  under  dates  subsequent 
to  January  1,  1914,  were  found  by  averaging  the  first  three  ingoing 
threshold  positions  of  the  coil.  Professor  Martin  kindly  informed  us 
that  his  present  procedure  is  to  repeat  the  ingoing  movements  of  the  coil 
until  two  thresholds  agree.  While  this  seems  statistically  somewhat 
arbitrary,  his  results  are  much  more  regular  than  ours. 

Our  variation  of  procedure  should  affect  materially  only  the  level  of 
measurements  on  different  days.  Differences  between  the  successive 
series  on  one  day  should  still  be  comparable  with  the  differences  between 
successive  series  on  another  day,  even  though  the  actual  values  are 
somewhat  higher  or  lower  on  the  different  days.  Since  our  whole 
statistical  treatment  is  based  on  these  serial  differences  rather  than  on 
average  levels,  our  variations  in  procedure,  as  regrettable  as  it  was  un- 
avoidable in  the  present  stage  of  experience  with  the  Martin  threshold, 
are  not  vital  to  our  main  problem. 

A  further  difficulty  connected  with  the  use  of  the  sensory  threshold 
for  electrical  stimulation  is  the  nature  of  the  sensation  whose  threshold 
is  measured.  Probably  it  may  safely  be  said  that  threshold  induction 
shocks  are  never  felt  as  simple  touch  or  pressure  sensations.  Martin, 
Porter,  and  Nice2  report  an  apparent  difference  in  the  sensations,  and 

Grabfield  and  Martin,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1912-13,  31,  p.  300. 
2Martin,  Porter  and  Nice,  Psychol.  Review,  1913,  20,  p.  194. 


136         PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

a  probable  difference  in  the  receptors,  when  wire  or  needle  electrodes  are 
used  instead  of  fluid  electrodes.  In  the  former  case,  the  sensory  effect 
was  sharply  localized  and  the  receptors  were  probably  superficial.  In 
the  latter  case  the  effect  was  more  diffuse  and  the  receptors  were 
probably  those  for  deep  sensibility.  For  one  of  their  subjects,  who  had 
a  slight  abrasion  of  one  finger,  each  shock  produced  a  distinct  throb  of 
pain  when  that  finger  was  used. 

Our  own  experience  corresponds  with  this  report.  A  cut  or  scratch 
always  occasioned  a  sharply  localized,  superficial  pricking  sensation. 
The  ordinary  deep  sensibility  quality  seemed  to  resemble  that  of  a 
slight,  involuntary  muscle-twitch.  The  apparent  location  of  this  sen- 
sation, as  reported  by  our  subjects,  was  not  necessarily  at  the  point  of 
application  of  the  electrodes,  but  usually  at  some  more  or  less  remote 
point,  often  just  above  or  between  the  fingers.  Changes  in  the  apparent 
position  of  the  sensation  occasioned  some  disturbance.  It  seems  clear 
that  the  sensation  quality  of  threshold  electrical  stimulation  differs  from 
that  of  more  intense  electrical  stimulation.  It  was  noticed  that  even 
threshold  stimulation  seemed  to  produce  a  different  sense  quality  at 
different  times.  It  seemed  sharper  and  quicker  at  some  times,  duller 
and  slower  at  others. 

A  further  difficulty  that  we  encountered  is  the  variability  in  the 
degree  of  assurance  that  the  sensation  is  present,  which  was  demanded 
by  different  subjects,  and  by  the  same  subjects  at  different  times.  It 
was  not  infrequent  for  a  subject  to  say,  "  I  really  felt  it  before  I  pressed 
the  signal  key,  but  I  was  not  sure."  There  are  objective  evidences  of 
this  difference.  Dr.  Wells  kindly  served  as  subject  for  two  days' 
Martin-threshold  experiments,  one  with  alcohol  and  one  without.  His 
introspective  notes  show  that  he  was  aware  of  his  being  more  easily  satis- 
fied of  the  presence  of  the  sensations  on  the  alcohol  day.  This  is  proved 
to  be  correct  by  his  records.  They  show  that  whereas  without  alcohol, 
that  is,  on  the  normal  day,  he  never  once  reported  a  sensation  when 
there  was  no  stimulus;  on  the  alcohol  days  such  errors  were  very 
numerous.  Especially  in  experiments  on  the  effect  of  drugs,  we  believe 
that  such  differences  of  critical  reliability  should  be  taken  into  account. 
They  may  be  really  more  important  for  an  understanding  of  the  drug 
action  than  the  apparent  changes  in  the  threshold  level.  Unfortu- 
nately, our  realization  of  the  possible  importance  of  this  secondary 
phenomenon  came  too  late  to  enable  us  to  collect  systematic  data.  We 
have  occasional  notes,  however,  to  indicate  that  other  subjects  showed 
a  similar  tendency,  especially  under  the  influence  of  the  larger  dose  of 
alcohol.  This  experience  leads  us  to  a  good  working  hypothesis  as  to 
the  probable  nature  of  the  new  factor  that  the  results  indicate  must 
have  influenced  the  threshold  under  the  larger  dose  of  alcohol.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  receptors  of  a  finger  immersed  in  a  liquid  are 
never  entirely  unexcited.  Temperature  and  pressure  sensations  are 
present  at  first.  Even  after  adaptation  or  fatigue  makes  them  indis- 


SENSORY   FARADIC   THRESHOLD.  137 

tinct,  they  may  on  occasion  flash  out  intermittently.  Furthermore,  the 
throb  of  the  pulse  and  slight  muscle-twitches  often  appear  to  concen- 
trated attention.  Geissler1  found  pulse  sensations  to  interfere  with 
minimal-weight  sensations.  There  may  thus  be  some  purely  physio- 
logical grounds  for  the  errors  which  occur  under  higher  doses  of  alcohol, 
especially  when,  as  our  observations  in  Chapter  VIII  show,  this  is 
accompanied  by  an  accelerated  pulse. 

In  general,  we  may  say  that  a  thoroughgoing  psychological  exploita- 
tion of  the  Martin-threshold  measurements  will  probably  take  into 
account  fatigability,  differences  between  the  threshold  to  increasing 
stimuli  and  the  threshold  to  decreasing  stimuli,  the  number  and  dis- 
tribution of  errors,  as  well  as  actual  changes  in  the  apparent  threshold 
level.  Unless  changes  in  the  skin-resistance  are  considerable,  we 
believe  it  will  be  more  profitable  psychologically  to  neglect  the  absolute 
j8  value,  after  it  is  once  determined  for  a  given  subject  and  day,  and  to 
concentrate  attention  on  a  statistical  treatment  of  the  simplest  thresh- 
old measurements  at  skin  resistance  (Martin  Z  units).  /?  values  and  Z 
values  are  commonly  parallel  in  any  event.  Concentration  on  Z  meas- 
urements will  consequently  not  impair  the  relative  significance  of  the 
results,  while  it  may  give  important  indications  of  varying  subjective 
conditions. 

APPARATUS  AND  TECHNIQUE. 

The  general  arrangement  of  apparatus  for  the  sensory  threshold  to 
Faradic  stimulation  (Martin  measurements)  is  seen  in  figure  14, 
page  95.  Inductorium,  mil-ammeter,  and  resistance  boxes  are  seen  to 
occupy  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  main  apparatus  table. 
KI  indicates  the  Kronecker  inductorium,  which  was  calibrated  for 
the  Nutrition  Laboratory  by  Professor  Martin.  The  Martin  key  for 
breaking  the  primary  circuit  under  a  column  of  mercury  is  not  shown 
in  the  diagram.  In  our  early  experiments,  it  was  operated  by  an 
assistant  in  an  adjoining  room.  In  all  the  data  which  are  reported  in 
this  paper  subsequent  to  February  1,  an  electrically  operated  key  of 
similar  construction  was  used.  A  simple  contact  device  held  in  the 
operator's  hand  caused  the  key  to  make  and  break  the  primary  circuit 
of  the  coil.  A  indicates  the  mil-ammeter.  It  was  continuously  in  the 
primary  circuit,  and  served  to  indicate  not  only  any  accidental  change 
in  the  amount  of  primary  current,  but  also  the  exact  moment  of  each 
stimulation.  R6  is  a  non-inductively  wound  resistance-box,  ranging 
from  10,000  to  100,000  ohms  resistance.  This  resistance  served  to 
introduce  a  known  resistance  of  20,000,  30,000,  and  40,000  ohms 
respectively  into  the  secondary  circuit.  By  use  of  the  double  switch 
at  the  left,  this  same  box  also  served  as  a  standard  resistance  for  meas- 
uring the  skin-resistance  by  the  Kohlrausch  method.  The  alternating 
current  for  measuring  the  skin-resistance  was  furnished  by  a  Porter 
inductorium  which  is  not  shown  in  the  diagram.  Connections  for 

Geissler,  Am.  Journ.  Psychol.,  1907,  18,  p.  309. 


138  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

measuring  the  skin-resistance  were  carried  to  the  galvanometer  table, 
whence  they  might  be  switched  to  the  string  galvanometer  for  optical 
measurements,  or  to  a  suitable  high-resistance  watch-case  telephone 
receiver  for  the  acoustic  method.  The  electrical  connections  for  the 
system  are  diagrammatically  represented  by  the  fine  lines  with  appro- 
priate legends. 

Position  of  the  subject. — Two  positions  were  occupied  by  the  subject 
for  sensory-threshold  measurements  by  the  Martin  method.  In  the 
earlier  measurements  and  in  the  12-hour  experiments,  the  subject 
reclined  in  a  comfortable  chair  in  position  I,  figure  1.  In  the  measure- 
ments which  form  the  bulk  of  the  experiments  here  reported,  that  is, 
in  all  measurements  which  were  made  on  Subjects  II  to  X  subsequent 
to  January  3,  1914,  the  subject  reclined  in  a  steamer-chair  on  the 
balcony  of  the  laboratory.  In  the  former  case,  threshold  measure- 
ments were  a  part  of  Group  I  of  the  experimental  series.  In  the  latter 
case,  threshold  measurements  alternated  with  association  experiments. 
In  every  respect  the  balcony  position  corresponded  more  closely  with 
the  conditions  that  are  recommended  by  Martin.  In  this  position  the 
subject  faced  a  blank  wall  and  responded  to  the  stimulation  by  signaling 
with  a  telegraph  key.  When  position  I  was  used  and  the  subject  sat 
in  the  same  room  with  the  apparatus,  the  inductorium  and  its  connec- 
tions were  hidden  from  view  by  other  apparatus.  In  this  case  the 
subject  indicated  a  perceptible  stimulation  by  saying  "now"  or  "yes." 
It  is  doubtless  always  more  or  less  unsatisfactory  to  have  the  subject 
in  the  same  room  with  the  apparatus,  even  when  the  utmost  precau- 
tions are  taken  to  prevent  his  hearing  the  key  or  seeing  the  movements 
of  the  secondary  coil.  If  the  threshold  work  alone  was  under  consid- 
eration the  ideal  condition  of  isolating  the  subject  could  be  rigidly 
enforced.  When  a  series  of  measurements  was  undertaken,  such  as 
ours  was,  such  isolation  becomes  more  difficult.  Periodic  movement 
of  the  subject  from  one  room  to  another  would  have  been  indefensible 
in  our  case.  Nevertheless,  it  seems  probable  that  with  increasing 
definiteness  of  the  various  controls  in  this  type  of  experimentation 
isolation  of  the  subject  from  the  apparatus,  both  for  the  threshold 
measurements  and  for  other  psychological  experiments,  must  not  be 
neglected. 

Electrodes. — In  all  our  threshold  experiments  zinc  sulphate  non- 
polarizable  electrodes  were  used.  Amalgamated  zinc  electrodes  were 
immersed  in  concentrated  sulphate  of  zinc.  The  fingers  were  placed 
in  a  porous  porcelain  inner  vessel  in  which  there  was  a  physiological 
salt  solution.  Martin  reported  that  the  value  of  0  was  not  changed  by 
changes  in  the  amount  of  the  finger  immersion.  Assuming  on  this 
ground  that  it  made  no  difference,  we  found  it  more  convenient  to  have 
only  the  first  joint  of  the  finger  immersed. 

Primary  current. — For  sensory  threshold  experiments  we  universally 
used  a  primary  current  of  0.5  ampere  taken  from  two  accumulators  of 


SENSORY   FARADIC   THRESHOLD. 


139 


large  capacity.  The  amount  of  the  current  was  regulated  by  two  slide 
resistances,  of  which  the  fine  adjustment  only  is  represented  in  figure  14 
as  a  slide-wire  resistance  at  the  front  of  the  table. 

Application  of  the  electrodes. — The  fingers  to  which  the  electrodes 
were  applied  were  usually  the  index  and  middle  fingers  of  the  right  hand. 
In  case  of  abrasion  of  either  of  these  fingers,  or  for  any  accidental  reason 
that  rendered  their  use  inexpedient,  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  of  the 
same  hand  were  used. 

RESULTS. 

A  full  summary  of  our  available  data  on  the  sensory  threshold  to 
electrical  stimulation  by  the  Martin  method  is  given  in  tables  22  and  23. 

TABLE  22. — Threshold  measurements  for  Faradic  stimulation. 
[Values  given  in  Martin  units.] 


Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

Normal. 

Subject,  date,  dose, 
and  number  of 
period. 

Alcohol. 

Average. 

Difference.1 

Average. 

Difference.1 

Z 

0       z 

0 

Z 

ft 

Z 

0 

Subject  II. 
Jan.  6,  1914: 
1  
2 

274 
274 
274 
281 
276 

277 
274 
262 
289 
294 
279 

281 
289 
298 
289 
316 
289 
307 
296 

289 
307 
281 
307 
290 
307 
297 

136 
139 
136 
135 
136 

148 
149 
147 
172 
151 
153 

(3) 
(3) 
(3) 
(3) 
(3) 
(3) 
(3) 

166 
197 
157 
159 
137 
141 
159 

0 
0 
-     7 
-    2 

-3 
0 
+     1 
-     1 

Subject  II. 
Jan.  13,  1914: 
Dose  A: 
1  
2   . 

*326 
385 
361 
409 
409 
349 
383 

*298 
349 
433 
433 
500 
429 

*807 
298 
349 
409 
349 
361 
373 
356 

2307 
307 
337 
337 
316 
324 

2204 
223 
(3) 
203 
235 
152 
203 

*158 
167 
222 
195 
272 
214 

Z127 
120 
190 
247 
179 
196 
208 
190 

*174 
170 
181 
177 
181 
177 

-59 
-  35 
-  83 
-  83 
-  23 
-  57 

-51 
-135 
-135 
-202 
-131 

+'Y 

-  42 
-102 
-  42 
-  54 
-  66 
-  49 

6 

-  30 
-  30 
-     9 
-  17 

-19 

3  
4  
Average  .... 

Feb.  17,  1914: 
1  
2  
3  
4 

3  

4  

+  01 
-  31 
+  52 

+     1 

-15 
-  70 
-  43 
-120 
-  62 

+  "7' 

-  63 
-120 
-  52 
-  69 
-  81 
-  63 

+  "4" 
-     7 
-     3 
-  14 
-    5 

5 

6  
Average.    .  . 
Feb.  3,  1914: 
Dose  B: 
1 

+  03 
+  15 
-   12 
-   17 
-    3 

-"&" 

-  17 
-     8 
-  35 

0 

-  26 
-  17 

-18 
+     8 
-   18 
-     1 
-   18 
-     9 

-     1 
+     1 
-  24 
-     3 
-    7 

-31 

+     9 
+     7 
+  29 
+  25 
+    8 

2  

3  
4   . 

5  
Average.    .  . 

Subject  III. 
Oct.  1,  1913: 
1  

5  
Average  .... 

Subject  III. 
Jan.  12,  1914: 
Dose  A: 
1  
2  

2  
3  
4  

3  
4 

5  
6 

5  
6  

7 

7  
Average  .... 

Feb.  16,  1914: 
2 

Average  .... 
Feb.  2,  1914: 
Dose  B: 
1  
2  
3 

3  
4  
5 

4  
5  
Average  .... 

6  
Average  .... 

Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 

2The  values  in  the  first  period  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was  given,  and  are  therefore 
not  included  in  the  averages.  3Insufficient  data. 


140 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  22. — Threshold  measurements  for  Faradic  stimulation — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  Martin  units.] 


Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

Normal. 

Alcohol. 

Average. 

Difference.1 

and  number  of 

Average. 

Difference.1 

Z 

0 

Z 

ft 

Z 

0 

Z 

0 

Subject  IV. 
Jan.  8,  1914: 

2........... 
3       

592 
545 
569 
569 
569 

446 
592 
569 
545 
464 
482 
516 

285 
268 
278 
298 
298 
285 

217 
235 
238 
226 
256 
238 
235 

298 
361 
316 
281 
289 
361 
385 
337 
373 
409 
341 

416 
302 
314 
318 
337 

245 
384 
364 
343 
269 
279 
314 

(') 

o 
o 
o 

C) 

134 
140 
136 
91 
113 
118 
122 

165 
212 
188 
155 
166 
205 
223 
175 
226 
235 
195 

+  '47' 
+  23 
+  23 
+  31 

-146 
-123 
-  99 
-  18 
-  36 
-  84 

+  'l7" 
+     7 
-  13 
-  13 
-    0.5 

+114 

+102 
+  98 
+105 

-139 
-119 
-  98 
-  24 
-  34 
-  83 

Subject  IV. 
Jan.  15,  1914: 
Dose  A: 

•m 

521 
569 
647 
592 
647 
595 

*289 
349 
397 
473 
421 
421 
397 
410 

*298 
326 
349 
463 
445 
520 
439 
521 
438 

**24 
226 
238 
274 
274 
253 

*t98 
337 
361 
361 
307 
326 
373 
373 
409 
409 
421 
368 

*S28 
303 
338 
429 
381 
400 
370 

•146 
190 
228 
274 
238 
209 
184 
220 

(3) 
« 
O 

(') 

(') 

o 
o 

0 
Jm 

130 
140 
158 
153 
145 

•183 
192 
215 
210 
168 
166 
212 
200 
244 
230 
244 
208 

-100 
-148 
-226 
-171 
-226 
-174 

-60 
-108 
-184 
-132 
-132 
-108 
-121 

-28 
-  51 
-165 
-147 
-222 
-141 
-223 
-140 

-     2 
-  14 
-  50 
-  50 
-  29 

-  39 
-  63 
-  63 
-     9 
-  28 
-  75 
-  75 
-111 
-111 
-123 
-  70 

-  75 
-110 
-201 
-153 
-172 
-142 

-44 
-  82 
-128 
-  92 
-  63 
-  38 
-  74 

-'3 
-  13 
-  31 
-  26 
-  18 

-"9* 
-  32 
-  27 
+  15 
+  17 
-  29 
-   17 
-  61 
-  47 
-  61 
-  25 

2  

4  
Average  .  .  . 

Feb.  19,  1914: 
1  
2  
3  
4  

3  
4  
5  
6       .    . 

Average  .  .  . 
Feb.  6,  1914: 
DoseB: 
1  

2  
3  
4  
5  
6  
7  
Average  .  .  . 

Subject  VI. 
Oct.  14,  1913 
Dose  A: 

2!!!!!!!!!!!. 
3  
4 

5  
6  
Average  .  .  . 

Subject  VI. 
Oct.  7,  1913: 

2............ 
3  
4  
5  
Average  .... 

Mar.  2,  1914: 
1  

5 

6  
7  

8  
Average  .... 
Feb.  4,  1914: 
DoaeB: 

2 

2 

-   18 
-  21 
-     9 
-  39 
-  21 
-  22 

-63 
-  18 
+  17 
+     9 
-  63 
-  87 
-  39 
-  75 
-111 
-  48 

-     6 
-     2 
+  43 
+  21 
+  16 
+  14 

-47 
-  23 
+  10 
-     1 
-  40 
-  58 
-   10 
-  61 
-  70 
-  33 

3 

4  
5  
6  
Average  .... 

18  hr.  experiment. 
Jan.  1,  1914: 
8h  30™  a.  m  .  .  . 
9  30    a.m... 
11   20    a.m... 
12    10    p.m... 
2   00    p.m... 
3   15    p.  m.  .  . 
4   25    p.  m.  .  . 
5   10    p.  m.  .  . 
6   10    p.  m.  .  . 
7   10    p.  m.  .  . 
Average  .... 

3 

4 

5 

Average  .... 

IK  hr.  experiment. 
Jan.  2,  1914: 
DoseC: 
8h40ma.  m... 
9  30    a.m... 
10  25    a.m... 
11   30    a.m... 
1   30    p.  m  .  .  . 
2  30    p.  m.  .  . 
3  40    p.  m.  .  . 
4  45    p.  m.  .  . 
5  45    p.  m  .  .  . 
6  30    p.  m.  .  . 
7   25    p.m... 
Average  .... 

'Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 

The  values  in  the  first  period  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was  given,  and  are  therefore 
not  included  in  the  averages.  'Insufficient  data. 


SENSORY   FARADIC   THRESHOLD. 


141 


TABLE  22. — Threshold  measurements  for  Faradic  stimulation — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  Martin  units.] 


Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

Normal. 

Subject,  date,  dose, 
and  number  of 
period. 

Alcohol. 

Average. 

Difference.1 

Average. 

Difference.1 

Z 

ft 

Z 

ft 

Z 

ft 

Z 

ft 

Subject  VII. 
Oct.  8,  1913: 
1  
2 

210 
226 
226 
221 
221 

173 
166 
204 
215 
238 
204 
200 

262 
268 
250 
244 
256 

343 
379 
433 
445 
445 
409 

244 
250 
326 
274 
316 
297 
284 

(2) 

0 

(2) 

(2) 

Subject  VII. 
Oct.  15,  1913: 
Dose  A: 
1  
2 

*177 
195 
204 
226 
232 
262 
268 
274 
237 

3232 
229 
235 
250 
235 
244 
239 

3230 
221 
244 
281 
298 
302 
268 
256 
267 

•USB 
256 
274 
268 
262 
268 
281 
268 

3361 
349 
349 
398 
373 
367 

(2) 
C2) 
C2) 
C2) 

(2) 

C2) 

o 

(2) 

3138 
132 
136 
129 
101 
128 
125 

(2) 
C2) 
O 
C2) 
O 

o 
o 

(2) 

C2) 

(2) 
(2) 

O 

o 

C2) 

0 

*6B8 

213 
217 
224 
205 
215 

-  16 
-   16 
-   11 
-  14 

3  
4  
Average  .... 

Mar.  6,  1914: 
1 

-  18 
-  27 
-  49 
-  55 
-  85 
-  91 
-  97 
-  60 

3  

4  

111 

58 
115 
116 
148 
100 
108 

(2) 
C2) 
0 
C2) 

(2) 
o 
0 

C2) 

(2) 

132 
133 
204 
124 
158 
163 
152 

5  
6  

7   . 

8  

Average  .... 
Feb.  27,  1914: 
DoseB: 

2 

2  
3  
4  
5  
6 

+     7 
-  31 
-  42 
-  65 
-  31 
-  32 

-6 
+  12 

+  18 
+    8 

-36 
-  90 
-102 
-102 
-  82 

-     6 
-  82 
-  30 
-  72 
-  53 
-  49 

+  53 

-     4 
-     5 
-  37 
+  11 
+    4 

+     3 
-     3 

-   18 

O 

-  12 

_      y 

+'ii' 

-   12 
-  49 
-  66 
-  70 
-  36 
-  24 
-  35 

-24 
-  42 
-  36 
-  30 
-  36 
-  49 
-  36 

+  'l2" 
+  12 
-  37 
-  12 
-     6 

+     3 
-     2 
+     5 
-     5 
+     7 
+    2 

3  
4 

5 

Average  .... 

Subject  VIII. 
Oct.  9,  1913: 

2.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
3 

6  
Average  .... 

Subject  VIII. 
Oct.  16,  1913: 
Dose  A: 
1  

2  
3  

4  

Average  .... 

Subject  IX. 
Oct.  10,  1913: 

2 

4  
5 

6  

7  
8 

Average  .... 

Subject  IX. 
Oct.  20,  1913: 
Dose  A: 
1  
2  
3 

3  
4  
5 

+'Y 

+     5 
-     2 
+  17 
+    7 

4  
5 

Average  .... 

Mar.  3,  1914: 
1  
2  
3  
4  
5  
6  
Average  .... 

-  72 
+     8 
-  26 
-  31 
-  25 

6  
7  
Average  .... 
Feb.  20,  1914: 
DoseB: 
1  

2  

3  
4 

5  

Average  .... 

Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1—4,  etc. 
2No  record. 

3The  values  in  the  first  period  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was  given,  and  are  therefore 
•ot  included  in  the  averages. 


142 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  22. — Threshold  measurements  for  Faradic  stimulation — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  Martin  units.] 


Subject,  date,  and 
number  of  period. 

Normal. 

Subject,  date,  dose, 
and  number  of 
period. 

Alcohol. 

Average. 

Difference.1 

Average. 

Difference.1 

Z 

ft 

Z 

ft 

Z 

ft 

Z 

ft 

Subject  X. 
Feb.  23,  1914: 

2 

316 
316 
361 
349 
361 
409 
352 

185 
171 
221 
205 
211 
252 
207 

Subject  X. 
Mar.  4,  1914: 
Dose  A: 

2............ 
3 

*256 
281 
349 
421 
434 
463 
390 

*151 
156 
212 
244 
250 
274 
227 

0 
-  45 
-  33 
-  45 
-  93 
-  43 

+  14 
-  36 
-  20 
-  26 
-  67 
-  27 

3   

-  25 
-  93 
-165 
-178 
-207 
-134 

-     5 
-  61 
-  93 
-  99 
-   123 
-  76 

4  
5 

4 

6  
Average  

5  

6  
Average  .... 

PSYCHOPATHIC  SUBJECTS. 

Subject  XI. 
Mar.  24,  1914: 
1  
2     

592 
545 
408 
515 

620 
647 
620 
629 

521 
482 
445 
483 

409 
421 
500 
443 

326 
316 
337 
326 

281 
337 
316 
311 

381 
329 
140 
283 

460 
457 
425 
447 

325 
301 
242 
289 

261 
260 
328 
283 

197 
180 
196 
191 

157 
193 
167 
172 

+  47 
+184 
+115 

+  '52' 
+241 
+146 

Subject  XI. 
Mar.  25,  1914: 
Dose  A: 

*463 
473 
463 
500 
479 

*573 
397 
421 
463 
427 

*£98 
307 
349 
373 
385 
353 

*S06 
313 
296 
318 
309 

»«5« 
240 
249 
280 
256 

1  178 
175 
202 
222 
217 
204 

-  10 
0 
-  37 
-  16 

-24 
-  48 
-  90 
-  54 

-     8 
+    9 
-  13 
-    4 

-"B 

-  17 
-  48 
-  24 

3     

2  

Average  .... 

Mar.  28,  1914: 
1           

3  
4  
Average  .... 

Subject  XII. 
Apr.  1,  1914: 
Dose  A: 
1 

2                ... 

-  27 
0 
-  13 

+  39 
+  76 
+  57 

-  12 
-  91 
-  51 

+     3 
+  35 
+  19 

+"24' 
+  83 
+  53 

+   i 

-  67 
-  33 

3 

Average  .... 

Subject  XII. 
Mar.  31,  1914: 
1  
2  
3  
Average  

Apr.  4,  1914: 
1  

2 

3  

4  

Average  .... 

Subject  XIV. 
Apr.  22,  1914: 
Dose  A: 
1  
•     2  

2  

3  

Average  .... 

Subject  XIV. 
Apr.  21,  1914: 
1 

2 

+  10 

-  11 
0 

+  17 
+    9 

3  

-     9 
-  51 
-  75 
-  87 
-  55 

+    3 
-  24 
-  44 
-  39 
-  26 

Average  .... 

Apr.  25,  1914: 
1  

3  

4  
6  
Average  .... 

2  

-  66 
-  35 
-  45 

-  36 
-  10 
-  23 

3  

Average  .... 

•Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 

'The  values  in  the  first  period  were  obtained  before  the  alcohol  was  given,  and  are  therefore 
not  included  in  the  averages. 


SENSORY   FARADIC   THRESHOLD. 


143 


Wherever  possible,  the  results  are  given  in  both  Z  and  )8  units, 
computed  from  the  reading  of  the  secondary  coil  by  the  formula 

M 


Z  is 


Z  = 


~ 


Ic. 


M 


In  this  formula,  -^  is  a  constant  depending  on  the  relation  between  the 

primary  and  secondary  coils  at  that  particular  position  for  our 
inductorium.  Its  value  is  given  either  directly  by  Professor  Martin's 
calibration  of  our  inductorium,  or  by  interpolation  between  those  values. 
Ic  is  the  intensity  of  the  primary  current  in  amperes  corrected  by  the 
empirically  determined  constant  for  our  inductorium,  according  to  the 
formula  Ic  =  Io  (1+0.41  Jo). 

TABLE  23. — Summary  of  threshold  measurements  for  Faradic  stimulation. 
[Values  given  in  Martin's  Z  units.] 


Subject. 

Average  Z  differences. 

Effect  of  alcohol.1 

Percentile  effect 
of  alcohol.2 

Normal 
average 
I  and  II. 

Alcohol. 

Dose  A. 

Dose  B. 

Dose  A. 

Dose  B. 

Dose  A. 

Dose  B. 

Normal  subjects: 
II  
Ill  
IV  

-  2 
-13 
-26 
-11 
-23 
+  8 
-65 
-43 

-  57 
-  49 
-174 
-140 
-  60 
-  35 
-  36 
-134 

-131 
-  17 
-121 
-  29 

-     7 

-     6 

-  55 
-  36 
-148 
-129 
-  37 
-  43 
+  29 
-  91 

-129 
-     4 
-  95 
-   18 
+  16 

+  59 

p.  el. 

-19 
-12 
-30 
-48 
-20 
-17 
+11 
-32 

p.ct. 

-46 
-   1 
-21 

-  7 
+  8 

"+19" 

VI  
VII  
VIII  

IX  

x 

Average  
12  hr.  experiment: 
VI  
Psychopathic  subjects: 
XI  
XII 

-22 

-48 

+51 
+  3 
-22 
+11 

-  86 

3-  70 

-   16 
-  54 
-  55 
-  42 

-  52 

-  64 

3-  22 

-  67 
-  57 
-  33 
-  52 

-  28 

-21 

-12 
-13 
-11 
-12 

-  8 

XIV  
Average  

1Alcohol  values  minus  normal  values. 

2Percentile  effect  equals  the  effect  of  the  alcohol  on  the  average  Z  difference  divided  by  the 
average  of  the  corresponding  normals  of  the  day. 
3Dose  C  was  given  in  this  experiment. 

/3  is  computed  from  the  reading  of  the  position  of  the  secondary  coil 
by  Wilbur's  simplification  of  the  Martin  formula  for  /3  as  published  in 
"The  Nocturnal  Variation  of  the  Sensory  Threshold,"  by  Martin, 
Bigelow,  and  Wilbur.1 

Zr  R'  -  Zr'  R 
&  =        R'  -  R 


Martin,  Bigelow,  and  Wilbur,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1914,  33,  p.  415. 


144  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

Zr  is  the  value  of  Z  at  skin  resistance. 

R  is  the  skin  resistance. 

Zr'  is  the  value  of  Z  when  the  arbitrary  known  resistance  is  introduced 
into  the  primary  circuit. 

R'  is  the  total  value  of  the  skin  and  known  resistance. 

As  appears  from  the  above  formulae,  the  Z  values  take  no  account  of 
the  changing  skin  or  electrode  resistance.  Since  these  changes  in  the 
course  of  our  3-hour  experiments  were  never  large,  and  since  Martin 
had  already  shown  that  Z  and  0  values  tend  to  run  a  parallel  course,  it 
is  probable  that  no  great  violence  has  been  done  to  the  results  by 
computing  the  effects  of  alcohol  from  Z.  This  course  was  necessary 
in  the  present  instance,  because  measurements  of  skin-resistance  which 
we  made  before  December  23  were  technically  unreliable,  and  in  several 
instances  these  earlier  measurements  of  Z  were  the  only  ones  available 
as  a  first  normal  day. 

The  general  effects  of  alcohol,  doses  A  and  B,  are  tabulated  for  each 
subject  hi  the  summary  (table  23),  in  both  absolute  differences  and  in 
percentile  changes.  Inspection  of  table  23  shows  that  for  both  normal 
and  alcohol  days,  the  value  of  Z  in  succeeding  series  of  the  same  day 
tends  to  rise.  In  psychological  terms  the  sensory  threshold  rises  or  the 
sensitivity  decreases  as  the  experimental  periods  of  3  hours  progressed. 
There  is,  however,  a  distinct  difference  between  normal  and  alcohol 
days  in  this  respect.  On  alcohol  days  the  sensitivity  decreases  more 
than  on  the  normal. 

The  tendency  of  the  threshold  to  rise  during  a  normal  experimental 
period  is  practically  explained  by  the  interaction  of  the  daily  rhythm. 
Since  most  of  the  measurements  here  reported  were  made  in  the  after- 
noon between  3  and  7,  one  would  expect  such  a  tendency  as  a  result  of 
the  daily  rhythm  which  was  described  by  Grabfield  and  Martin.1 

But  our  experimental  conditions  were  not  strictly  analogous  to  those 
of  Grabfield  and  Martin.  In  their  case,  the  experimental  measurement 
of  the  Faradic  threshold  was  introduced  as  an  interruption  to  some 
regular  work.  In  our  case,  the  3-hour  series  of  measurements  permitted 
only  the  most  restricted  activity  of  the  subject.  Such  pronounced 
neuro-muscular  relaxation  as  our  pulse-records  show  at  the  end  of  the 
period  was  probably  not  duplicated  in  their  experiments.  It  is  still 
more  significant  that  in  spite  of  quickened  heart-rate,  the  effect  of 
alcohol  is  still  further  to  decrease  sensitivity. 

The  last  two  columns  of  table  23  show  the  percentile  value  of  this 
difference  for  the  main  group  of  subjects;  it  averages  21  per  cent  of  the 
average  normal  value  of  Z,  after  the  ingestion  of  the  smaller  dose  of 
alcohol,  and  8  per  cent  after  the  ingestion  of  the  larger  dose.  On  the 
basis  of  our  statistical  theory,  the  one  exception  under  dose  A,  Subject 

lGrabfield  and  Martin,  Am.  Journ.  Physio!.,  1912-13,  31,  p.  300. 


SENSORY   FARADIC   THRESHOLD.  145 

IX,  is  within  the  expected  error.  The  apparent  notable  decrease  of 
effect  after  dose  B  of  alcohol  can  not  be  regarded  as  an  accident.  It 
seemed  probable  that  some  new  factor  entered  the  situation  with  the 
larger  dose.  At  first  we  thought  we  had  come  upon  an  indication  of 
increased  stimulation,  but  the  total  evidence  is  against  this  explanation. 
While  smaller  than  after  dose  A,  the  average  is  still  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. A  change  in  sign  occurs  only  in  one  case  out  of  six.  We  have 
already  mentioned  a  much  more  probable  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomenon, which  at  the  same  time  accounts  for  the  individual  variation. 
This  is  the  change  in  the  standard  of  assurance  under  alcohol,  for  which 
we  gave  our  incomplete  introspective  and  objective  evidence  in  the 
earlier  discussion. 

In  view  of  all  the  facts,  we  may  probably  conclude  that  the  sensory 
threshold  for  electrical  stimulation  is  raised  by  moderate  doses  of 
alcohol.  In  other  words,  the  average  sensitivity  to  electrical  stimu- 
lation is  decreased  by  moderate  doses  of  alcohol.  As  this  is  diametri- 
cally opposed  to  the  finding  of  Specht1  in  the  case  of  sound  threshold, 
we  may  not  generalize  our  data.  But  we  would  emphasize  the  fact 
that  our  threshold  is  uncontaminated  by  such  complex  adaptation 
changes  of  the  sense  organ  as  may  supervene  in  the  case  of  the  eye 
and  the  ear. 

Specht,  Archiv.  f.  d.  ges.  Psychol.,  1907,  9,  p.  180. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  MOTOR  COORDINATIONS. 
GENERAL  MOTOR  PROCESSES. 

The  motor  side  of  our  original  program  has  suffered  abbreviation 
through  our  time  limits  more  than  any  other  in  this  research.  The 
program  called  for  an  investigation  (1)  of  muscle  threshold,  (2)  of  motor 
fatigue,  (3)  of  muscle  tremor,  as  well  as  (4)  of  the  speed  of  movement. 
Tentative  experiments  were  made  in  all  these  directions.  But  only  in 
the  fourth,  which  we  came  to  interpret  broadly  as  a  measure  of  motor 
coordination,  did  the  available  technique  appear  to  warrant  the  inclu- 
sion of  the  measurements  in  the  regular  series  of  experiments. 

(1)  In  our  attempts  to  measure  the  muscle  threshold  we  used  the 
Martin  complex  of  apparatus  as  described  in  Chapter  VI.  Our  first 
difficulty  was  to  make  a  satisfactory  non-polarizable  electrode  of  uni- 
form surface  contact  and  resistance.  After  experimenting  with  various 
devices,  we  finally  came  to  use  the  following  relatively  satisfactory 
form:  Prepared  clay  (clay  moistened  with  normal  salt  solution)  was 
spread  to  a  thickness  of  about  3  mm.  on  the  bottom  of  a  porous  porce- 
lain cup,  which  was  about  2.5  cm.  in  diameter  and  about  2  cm.  high. 
An  amalgamated  zinc  electrode  wrapped  in  absorbent  cotton  which  was 
well  moistened  with  saturated  zinc-sulphate  solution  was  placed  inside 
the  cup.  The  clay-covered  cup  was  placed  against  the  appropriate 
part  of  the  skin,  to  the  configuration  of  which  it  readily  conformed,  and 
was  held  in  position  with  an  elastic  band.  With  reasonable  care  this 
arrangement  provided  an  electrode  of  uniform  size,  even  contact,  and 
quite  regular  resistance.  As  an  indifferent  electrode  we  used  a  fluid, 
non-polarizable  electrode,  such  as  was  used  in  the  sensory-threshold 
experiments.  The  significant  electrode  was  regularly  placed  on  a  point 
of  the  left  forearm,  which  preliminary  exploration  showed  to  be  the 
common  point  for  the  extension  of  the  digits.  A  finger  of  the  right 
hand  was  inserted  in  the  indifferent  electrode.  In  this  manner  a 
considerable  body  of  data  was  collected  which  was  too  obviously  faulty 
to  be  included  in  this  report.  The  faults  depended,  first,  on  the  diffi- 
culty in  observing  threshold  contraction  of  the  digital  extensors.  No 
device  which  we  adopted  for  registration  seemed  to  work  satisfactorily. 
Observation  of  the  muscle  was  sometimes  more  and  sometimes  less 
satisfactory  than  observations  of  the  movements  of  the  fingers.  Even 
with  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  observations  we  were  seldom 
satisfied  that  we  had  a  true  threshold,  either  with  increasing  or  with 
decreasing  stimuli.  The  area  of  uncertainty  would  frequently  extend 
over  several  millimeters  of  the  inductorium  scale.  This  was  more 

146 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS.  147 

serious,  since  we  had  to  use  a  large  current  in  the  primary  (1  ampere), 
and  even  then  the  muscle  threshold  at  skin  resistance  was  usually  found 
with  the  primary  and  secondary  coils  so  close  together  that  a  change 
of  a  single  millimeter  made  relatively  large  changes  in  the  intensity  of 
the  induced  current.  On  these  grounds  we  feel  doubtful  if  the  fingers, 
in  spite  of  their  mobility,  are  adapted  to  serve  as  indicators  of  muscle 
threshold  to  Faradic  stimulation  by  the  Martin  method.  A  second 
difficulty  arose  out  of  the  required  intensity  of  the  current  for  threshold 
stimulation.  On  account  of  the  possible  variations  of  skin  and  elec- 
trode resistance,  we  felt  that  only  j8  values  could  be  regarded  as  signifi- 
cant in  these  measurements.  But  on  account  of  the  intensity  of  the 
current  demanded,  we  found  it  impracticable  to  get  more  than  one 
threshold  with  known  resistance,  in  addition  to  the  threshold  at  skin 
resistance,  and  this  one  additional  threshold  was  obtained  with  the 
secondary  coil  at  a  relatively  unreliable  part  of  the  scale.  The  data 
at  hand  show  no  clear  tendency  of  muscle  threshold  after  alcohol, 
but,  as  we  have  indicated,  they  are  too  unreliable  to  be  of  any  real 
significance. 

(2)  On  the  problem  of  muscle  fatigue  and  recuperation  we  have  no 
direct  data.     Prolonged  free  oscillation  of  the  finger,  which  we  proposed 
in  the  program  to  study  in  this  connection,  proved  to  be  complicated  by 
too  many  capricious  factors  to  be  usable.     Preliminary  records  clearly 
showed  that  some  subjects  unconsciously  saved  themselves  at  the 
beginning  for  the  long  process.     Moreover,  they  yielded  variously  to 
growing  discomfort,  fatigue,  etc.     In  our  experimental  series  we  con- 
tinued to  use  the  free  oscillation  of  the  finger,  but  only  for  the  initial  spurt 
and  in  quite  another  connection.    Incidental  indications  of  fatigue  from 
these  records  will  be  discussed  in  the  latter  part  of  this  chapter. 

(3)  Attempts  to  measure  muscle-tremors  were  made  by  attaching 
delicate  photographic  recorders  to  the  finger,  wrist,  and  forearm  respec- 
tively, with  adequate  supports  for  the  member  that  was  not  under 
observation.     The  instrumental  technique  was  accurate.     A  long  lever 
was  placed  before  a  photographic  recording-camera  in  such  a  position 
that  a  shadow  of  its  free  end  fell  across  the  slit.     The  limb  whose 
tremors  were  to  be  measured  was  then  attached  to  the  lever  by  a  light 
but  rigid  connector  in  such  a  way  that  the  tremors  were  magnified  ten 
times.     But  with  this  frictionless  recording  technique  the  result  of  the 
preliminary  records  gave  such  wide  variations  within  a  few  seconds  of 
each  other  under  supposedly  normal  conditions  that  we  decided  to  drop 
the  measurements  until  the  sources  of  variation  could  be  investigated. 

(4)  The  speed  of  movement  developed  under  our  analysis  of  its  con- 
ditions to  a  more  significant  measurement  than  we  had  at  first  ventured 
to  expect.     It  takes  its  proper  place  with  respect  to  the  rest  of  the 
neuro-muscular  processes  only  when  we  regard  it  as  an  indicator  of 
primary  motor  coordination. 


148  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

MOTOR  COORDINATIONS. 

The  fundamental  technical  problem  in  any  attempt  to  measure  the 
effect  of  alcohol  on  human  motor  coordination  must  be  to  discover  some 
measurable  and  generally  practiced  motor  process  whose  character 
and  complexity  are  definitely  known,  and  whose  operation  is  removed 
as  far  as  possible  from  the  voluntary  or  capricious  control  of  the  subject. 

While  the  total  irritability  of  nervous  arcs  is  indicated  by  the  latent 
time  of  reflex  and  reaction  and  by  the  amount  of  muscle  contraction 
which  follows  a  definite  stimulus,  neither  of  these  measurements  gives 
any  indication  with  respect  to  the  adequacy  of  the  central  elaboration 
of  the  response.  As  far  as  our  present  knowledge  goes,  we  can  not 
regard  the  adequacy  of  any  simple  human  reflex  as  a  measurable 
quality.  It  would  be  possible,  however,  to  find  an  indication  of  the 
adequacy  of  coordination  in  any  one  of  the  more  complex  reaction 
processes  if  we  had  suitable  techniques.  For  example,  the  accuracy 
of  fixation  in  the  reactive  eye-movements  would  depend  on  the  ade- 
quacy of  the  oculo-motor  coordinations.  But  unfortunately,  as  we 
have  pointed  out,  accurate  spatial  measurements  of  the  eye-movements 
present  many  technical  difficulties  that  are  not  met  in  time  measure- 
ments. For  the  present  experiments,  at  least,  these  difficulties  seemed 
to  make  measurement  of  the  adequacy  of  visual  fixation  impracticable. 
Similarly,  the  sequence  of  movements  that  are  involved  in  speech,  as 
it  occurs  in  word-reactions,  would  be  an  excellent  indication  of  the 
adequacy  of  a  generally  practiced  coordination  process.  Such  an 
indication  would  be  of  peculiar  value  in  experiments  with  small  doses  of 
alcohol,  since  there  is  evidence  in  the  disturbed  utterance  of  patients 
suffering  from  acute  alcoholism  that  large  amounts  of  alcohol  notably 
affect  the  coordinations  of  speech.  But  in  the  case  of  speech,  even  more 
conspicuously  than  in  the  case  of  the  eye  reactions,  the  difficulties  of  ade- 
quate registration  and  measurement  are  at  present  prohibitive.  Meas- 
urements of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  coordinations  of  speech  would  be 
further  complicated  by  the  wide  variations  of  normal  pronunciation. 

Much  the  same  difficulty  would  appear  to  threaten  the  attempt  to 
measure  the  motor  coordination  in  standing,  walking,  writing,  etc.  In 
the  more  consciously  controlled  processes  of  drawing,  typewriting, 
typesetting,  etc.,  new  technical  difficulties  appear  in  the  unknown 
and  unmeasured  interplay  of  interest  and  effort  and  the  complex 
group  of  determinants  that  we  commonly  call  the  will.  Such  meas- 
urements are  especially  useful  as  an  indication  of  the  effect  of  alcohol 
on  socially  important  processes,  but  their  scientific  value  would  be  con- 
ditioned by  a  knowledge  of  the  interaction  of  the  several  factors  that 
combine  to  produce  any  specific  performance  in  these  processes. 

When  we  attempt  to  analyze  out  of  human  action  the  simplest  form 
of  motor  coordination,  which  corresponds,  in  its  relation  to  complex 
acts,  to  the  relation  between  the  simple  reflexes  and  the  complex 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS.  149 

reactions,  we  come  upon  the  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  antagonistic 
muscles  that  control  the  movement  of  a  limb.1 

First  demonstrated  for  voluntary  antagonistic  muscles  by  Sherrington2 
in  connection  with  the  antagonistic  muscles  of  the  eye,  it  appears  that 
whenever  one  member  of  a  pair  of  antagonistic  muscles  is  stimulated 
to  action  through  the  central  nervous  system,  the  other  member  tends 
to  corresponding  relaxation.  Apparently,  all  movements  of  the  limbs, 
voluntary  as  well  as  reflex,  are  conditioned  by  this  reciprocal  innerva- 
tion of  antagonistic  muscles.  Its  value  to  the  organism  is  obvious. 
Unless  the  antagonistic  muscle  relaxed  during  the  contraction  of  the 
agonistic,  the  latter  would  be  operating  not  only  against  its  load,  but 
also  against  the  tonus  of  the  former.  While  reciprocal  innervation  is 
not  a  mechanical  necessity  for  the  movement  of  the  limbs,  it  seems  to 
be  a  physiological  device  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  muscle  contraction. 
At  any  rate,  it  appears  to  be  a  fundamental  and  universal  fact  of 
nervous  motor  coordination.  Measurement  of  the  adequacy  of  motor 
coordination,  as  seen  in  reciprocal  innervation  of  antagonistic  muscles, 
can  not  be  made  in  human  subjects  by  the  direct  methods  that  are 
available  in  animals.  A  human  experiment  must  depend  on  the  move- 
ment of  the  limb  or  organ  to  which  the  muscles  are  attached,  rather 
than  on  the  action  of  extirpated  muscle.  In  the  voluntary  movements 
of  a  limb,  the  adequacy  of  reciprocal  innervation  may  be  indicated  in 
two  ways.  In  its  simplest  form,  it  is  indicated  by  the  maximum 
rapidity  of  movement,  since  only  by  the  relaxation  of  the  antagonistic 
can  the  agonistic  be  the  most  effective  in  producing  rapid  motion  of  the 
limb.  In  a  succession  of  most  rapid  possible  movements  of  a  limb,  a 
measure  of  the  adequacy  of  reciprocal  innervation  may"  be  found  in  the 
rate  with  which  the  oscillations  of  the  limb  may  be  produced. 

Both  of  these  measurements  are  complicated  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances by  a  variety  of  conditions.  The  normal  speed  of  voluntary 
movements  varies  enormously.  One  may  move  the  fingers  and  arms 
at  any  one  of  a  large  variety  of  predetermined  rates.  The  maximum 
velocity  is  conditioned  not  merely  by  the  mass  of  the  moving  member, 
the  strength  of  the  muscles,  and  the  adequacy  of  motor  coordination 
between  antagonistics,  but  also  by  that  highly  complex  mental  fact 
which  we  call  will.  If  one  found  in  a  subject  more  rapid  movements 
of  the  arm  as  a  consequence  of  the  ingestion  of  a  small  amount  of 
alcohol,  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  change  and  its  consequent 
significance  would  involve  an  equation  with  an  indefinite  number  of 
unknown  factors.  Euphoria,  increased  determination,  adaptation  to 
experimental  demands,  increased  interest  or  attention,  due  perhaps  to 
absence  of  conflicting  interests,  lack  of  apprehension  of  the  conse- 
quences, indifference  to  discomfort,  as  well  as  increased  strength  of 

Compare  Isserlin,  Kraepelin's  Psychol.  Arbeit.,  1914,  6,  p.  1. 

2Sherrington,  The  Integrative  Action  of  the  Nervous  System.     New  York,  1907.     Also  notes 
in  Proc.  Royal  Soc.  of  London,  1887,  42,  p.  556,  and  1888,  43,  p.  407. 


150          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

muscle,  or  increased  adequacy  of  coordinated  inhibition  of  antago- 
nistics — any  or  all  of  these  might  operate  to  increase  the  velocity  of 
movement.  A  change  in  the  relationship  of  the  different  factors  which 
involves  the  preponderance  of  any  one  of  the  opposing  tendencies  must 
decrease  or  increase  the  time  of  movement,  according  to  the  direction 
of  the  change  and  the  nature  of  the  tendency. 

It  was  in  obedience  to  our  fundamental  principles  for  the  selection  of 
measurable  phenomena  that  we  planned  to  measure  the  velocity  of 
movement  of  the  lightest  practicable  moving  member,  in  an  act  which 
was  as  far  as  possible  removed  from  arbitrary  or  voluntary  interference. 
In  both  respects  the  organ  in  which  Sherrington  first  demonstrated  the 
phenomena  of  reciprocal  innervation  in  voluntary  movements  is  pecul- 
iarly satisfactory.  The  eye  is  one  of  the  lightest  of  moving  members 
and  the  leverage  of  its  muscular  attachments  is  the  most  favorable 
for  rendering  its  mass  a  negligible  factor.  Eye-movements  of  the  first 
type,  that  is,  simple  movements  of  the  eye  in  fixating  peripherally  seen 
objects,  are  relatively  independent  of  voluntary  control.  Moreover, 
these  movements  of  the  eye,  in  which  the  point  of  regard  wanders  over 
any  relatively  fixed  section  of  the  field  of  vision,  are  doubtless  the  most 
numerous,  and  at  the  same  time  the  best  understood,  of  all  the  eye- 
movements. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  VELOCITY  OF  EYE-MOVEMENTS 
OF  THE  FIRST  TYPE. 

The  most  important  differentiating  characteristics  of  this  class  of  eye- 
movements  were  noted  by  Dodge1  in  his  description  of  the  type  from 
photographic  records,  as  follows:  The  duration  of  eye-movements  of 
the  first  type  is  less  than  of  any  other  movement  of  the  eye.  It  varies 
directly  with  the  angle  of  displacement,  but  is  approximately  constant 
for  each  individual  under  the  same  conditions  of  fatigue  of  the  eye- 
muscles,  of  original  orientation,  and  of  the  direction  and  angle  of  eye- 
movement. 

If  we  were  dependent  on  subjective  data  alone,  almost  everyone 
would  say  without  hesitation  that  he  could  move  his  eye  across  the 
field  of  vision  rapidly  or  slowly  at  will.  That  is,  however,  an  illusion. 
The  effort  to  move  the  eye  slowly  from  one  point  of  regard  to  another 
always  results  in  one  or  more  complete  stops,  of  which  the  subject  is 
never  directly  conscious  until  his  attention  is  called  to  them.  The 
simplest  method  of  convincing  oneself  of  this  fact  is  the  method  of 
Brown.2  If  the  attempt  be  made  to  move  the  eyes  slowly  along  a  line 
which  passes  through  a  bright  light,  on  closing  the  eyes  a  number  of 
well-defined  after-images  of  the  light  will  be  observed,  clearly  indicating 
that  the  eye  rested  at  corresponding  points  along  the  path.  More 

•Dodge,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1903,  8,  p.  307.  'Brown,  Nature,  1895,  52,  p.  184. 


MOTOR    COORDINATIONS. 


151 


satisfactory  is  the  evidence  obtained  by  direct  observation  of  another's 
eyes.  If  the  observer  is  careful  not  to  look  directly  at  the  moving  eye, 
but  rather  at  some  point  on  the  eyelid,  the  alternation  of  movement  and 
stops,  as  the  subject  attempts  to  move  his  eye  slowly,  will  be  clearly 
distinguished.  Photographic  records  show  that  these  pauses  are  of 
varying  length,  the  shortest  being  of  slightly  less  than  0.2". 

TECHNIQUE  FOR  MEASURING  THE  VELOCITY  OF  EYE-MOVEMENTS. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  here  a  critical  resume*  of  the  earlier 
attempts  to  measure  the  duration  of  the  eye-movements  by  optical 
methods. 

The  first  measurements  of  the  eye-movements  from  photographic 
records  are  reprinted  in  table  24  from  the  paper  by  Dodge  and  Cline.1 

TABLE  24. — Duration  of  eye-movements. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Angular    Relation 

A                              B 

C               ;  Gen- 

lateral 

to 

1   era! 

displace- 

primary 

aver- 

ment. 

position. 

M. 

M.V. 

No. 

M. 

M.V. 

No. 

M. 

M.  V.INo. 

age. 

L.      R. 

5° 

5  +  0 

34.5 

1.5 

8 

29.4 

2.9 

8 

22.4 

3.3 

10 

28.8 

10° 

5+  5 

41.8 

1.4 

9 

40.9 

3.8 

8 

33.7 

2.1 

5 

38.8 

15° 

10+  5 

46.7 

4.5 

8 

47.9 

2.6 

10 

49.9 

3.1 

10 

48.2 

20° 

10+10 

54.5 

8.0 

8 

51.3 

3.5 

10 

58.6 

4.1 

10  !  54.8 

30° 

15+15 

84.3 

8.9 

7 

74.3 

9.3 

10 

82.5 

3.8 

10  !  80.4 

40° 

20+20 

100.4 

4.5 

7 

93.4 

7.3 

10 

106.0 

8.0 

8 

99.9 

Table  24  shows  the  mean  duration  of  the  eye-movements  of  three 
subjects,  A,  B,  and  C,  through  angles  varying  from  5°  to  40°.  The  two 
columns  at  the  left  give  the  angular  lateral  displacement  of  the  line  of 
regard,  together  with  an  indication  of  the  orientation  of  the  lateral 
displacement  with  relation  to  the  preliminary  line  of  regard.  For 
example,  eye-movements  of  40°  were  between  two  points  which  were 
20°  to  either  side  of  the  primary  line  of  regard.  M.  signifies  the  mean 
value  in  terms  of  thousandths  of  a  second,  M.  V.  the  mean  variation,  and 
No.  the  number  of  records  from  which  the  mean  is  reckoned.  At  the 
extreme  right  is  given  the  general  average  for  all  three  subjects  for  the 
various  angles  of  displacement. 

The  results  given  in  the  table  indicate  that  the  duration  of  the  move- 
ments of  any  individual  eye  through  a  given  angle  tends  to  remain 
constant  within  the  limits  of  a  relatively  small  variation  from  the  mean. 
The  larger  mean  variation  for  the  angular  movements  above  15°  is  due 
in  part  to  the  differences  which  were  found  to  exist  between  the  adduc- 
tive  and  the  abductive  movements  of  the  eye. 

The  table  shows  further  that  the  duration  of  eye-movement  increases 
in  direct  ratio  with  the  angle.  Taking  the  general  average  of  all  three 


LDodgc  and  Cline,  Psychol.  Review,  1901,  8,  p.  145. 


152         PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

subjects  as  a  basis  for  calculation,  it  would  appear  that  for  every 
5°  added  to  the  amplitude  of  the  eye-movement  between  5°  and  40°, 
about  10<r  is  added  to  the  duration  of  the  movement.  But  the 
apparent  implication  of  a  fixed  maximum  velocity  of  10<r  for  each  5° 
is  false.  The  experiments  of  Guillery1  and  of  Briickner,2  as  well  as 
Erdmann  and  Dodge's3  experiments  by  the  Lamansky  method,  all 
showed  that  the  maximum  velocity  of  the  eye  during  movements  of 
large  amplitude  is  greater  than  the  maximum  velocity  during  move- 
ments of  small  amplitude.  The  record  of  every  eye-movement  of  the 
first  type,  between  5°  and  40°,  shows  three  distinct  phases.  The  first 
phase  consists  of  a  positive  acceleration  to  a  maximum  velocity.  This 
is  maintained  for  a  considerable  angle  of  movement,  and  constitutes  the 
second  phase,  giving  place  in  turn  to  a  negative  acceleration  phase  as 
the  eye  comes  to  rest.  The  relation  of  these  phases  is  not  constant. 
In  the  shortest  excursions  measured,  the  second  phase  is  very  short,  while 
in  the  longest  excursions,  with  the  exception  of  a  peculiar  modification 
in  the  abductive  movements,  the  second  phase  is  by  far  the  most 
conspicuous.  Moreover,  if  one  superimposes  a  curve  for  a  movement 
of  15°  on  a  curve  for  a  movement  of  40°,  the  second  phase  of  the  latter 
record  will  be  found  to  incline  slightly  more  to  the  horizontal.  This 
confirms  the  law  that  the  maximum  as  well  as  the  average  velocity 
increases  hi  direct  ratio  with  the  angle  of  movement. 

Guillery1  observed  a  decided  difference  between  the  velocity  of  the 
eye  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  an  eye-movement;  but  his 
experimental  method  involved  two  conditions  that  tend  to  distort  the 
relation.  In  the  first  place,  his  eye-movements  were  uniformly  ex- 
treme, and  involved  considerably  more  muscle  strain  and  effort  than 
the  more  natural  excursions  measured  by  Dodge  and  Cline,  which 
never  exceeded  20°  from  the  primary  position  of  the  eye.  Still  more 
important  is  the  fact  that  it  is  found  to  be  impossible,  even  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions,  to  secure  a  series  of  simple  direct  movements 
of  the  eyes  from  one  fixation  point  to  another  which  is  more  than  40° 
distant.  This  distance  is  persistently  underestimated,  and  the  initial 
long  movement  of  the  first  type  is  succeeded  by  a  shorter  corrective 
movement  of  the  same  type.  Since  Guillery's  eye-movements  were 
all  40°  or  over,  it  seems  probable  that  his  attempt  to  measure  the 
velocity  of  the  end  of  the  eye-movements  was  confused  by  the  small 
corrective  movements  whose  average  velocity  is  comparatively  low. 
In  the  abductive  movements,  the  photographic  records  commonly  show 
a  marked  difference  between  the  velocity  of  corresponding  portions  of 
the  first  and  third  phases.  This  peculiarity  of  the  third  phase  is 
sufficient  to  account  for  the  longer  duration  of  the  abductive  move- 
ments as  remarked  independently  both  by  Guillery,  and  by  Dodge  and 

KSuillery.  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Phyaiol.,  1898,  73,  p.  87. 

'Briickner,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1902,  90,  p.  73. 

'Erdmann  and  Dodge,  Psychologische  Untersuchungen  Qber  das  Lesen,  Halle,  1898. 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS.  153 

Cline.  Bruckner  found  the  relation  reversed  in  his  own  case,  i.  e.,  the 
adductive  movements  were  longer  than  the  abductive.  This  led  him 
to  conclude  that  the  differences  are  mere  personal  peculiarities  rather 
than  universal  differences  of  the  eye-movements  in  the  two  directions. 

All  these  various  characteristics  of  the  simple  eye-movements  have 
since  been  confirmed  by  a  wealth  of  photographic  records.1  They  make 
it  clear  that  the  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  antagonistic  muscles  of 
the  eye  under  normal  conditions  is  a  nice  adjustment  of  great  regularity 
in  ordinary  vision. 

We  know  of  no  other  voluntary  action  which  is  so  completely  with- 
drawn from  voluntary  control  as  the  eye-movements.  There  is  scant 
sensory  data  concerning  them,  so  scant  that  ordinarily  one  is  unable  to 
give  any  subjective  account  of  these  movements.  Physiologically  their 
velocity  is  probably  determined  by  visual  considerations.  Eye-move- 
ments exist  for  the  sake  of  unconfused  vision.  They  should  be  of  such 
short  duration  that  vision  does  not  seem  to  be  interrupted.  They 
must  be  rapid  enough  to  prevent  the  confusion  of  an  apparently  moving 
field.  When  satisfactorily  executed,  attention  is  abstracted  from  the 
eye-movements  to  the  clear  vision  that  they  condition.  For  our  pur- 
poses it  is  a  further  advantage  of  the  eye-movements  that  they  are 
thoroughly  habituated. 

Moreover,  the  technique  is  adequate.  The  records  are  photographic. 
The  time  is  given  directly  through  regular  interruption  of  the  recording 
beam  of  light  by  a  vibrator  in  series  with  a  tuning-fork.  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  photographic  procedure  is  not  without  some 
difficulties  of  its  own.  The  eyelid  may  droop  and  interfere  with  the 
recording  light  without  parallel  interference  of  vision.  Excessive  head- 
movements  may  render  a  considerable  portion  of  the  plate  illegible,  or 
take  the  subject  out  of  focus  of  the  recording-camera.  However,  the 
demands  on  the  subject's  intelligence  and  cooperation  are  so  small  that 
satisfactory  sets  of  eye-movement  records  were  obtained  by  Diefendorf 
and  Dodge  from  40  inmates  of  the  Connecticut  Hospital  for  the  Insane, 
including  manic,  depressed,  epileptic,  paralytic,  and  prsecox  patients. 

Our  photographic  arrangements  for  recording  the  movements  of  the  eye 
are  similar  to  those  for  recording  eye-reaction,  except  that  instead  of  the 
apparatus  to  expose  peripheral  objects,  two  constant  fixation  marks  are 
shown  (F1  and  F2,  fig.  14).  These  latter  are  so  oriented  that  in  looking 
from  one  to  the  other  the  eye  of  the  subject  will  move  through  an  angle 
of  40°,  i.  e.,  20°  on  either  side  of  its  primary  position,  as  in  the  eye-move- 
ments of  40°  which  were  measured  by  Dodge  and  Cline.  The  subject 
occupied  position  II,  figure  1,  exactly  as  in  the  eye-reaction  measure- 
ments. The  physiological  brilliancy  of  the  arc  light  was  stopped  down 

'Unfortunately  the  pretentious  work  of  Koch  (Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Psychol.,  1908,  13,  p.  196)  is 
unreliable.  In  spite  of  apparently  minute  care  in  determining  fixation,  he  can  not  prevent 
inaccuracies  of  vertical  displacement.  All  such  inaccuracies,  however,  will  appear  on  his  records 
as  a  modification  of  the  apparent  time  of  movement.  The  wide  individual  variation  in  the 
velocity  of  the  eye-movements  which  he  found  is  an  instrumental  artifact. 


154          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

with  one  or  more  thicknesses  of  blue  glass.  The  oscillating  light- 
interrupter  was  set  in  motion  by  starting  the  electrically-driven  tuning- 
fork  with  which  it  was  in  series.  The  enlarging  camera  was  focused  to 
secure  the  best  image  of  the  arc  light  as  reflected  from  the  cornea  of  the 
subject.  The  shutter  dropped  and  the  signal  was  given  to  the  subject 
to  look  from  one  point  of  regard  to  the  other,  back  and  forth  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  until  the  signal  to  stop  was  given  at  the  end  of  5  seconds. 

A  typical  record  of  the  eye-movements  is  reproduced  in  figure  27. 
The  horizontal  lines  on  this  record  indicate  the  moments  of  visual  fixa- 
tion. The  oblique  lines  of  dashes  indicate  movements  of  the  eye  from  one 
fixation  point  to  another.  Each  sweep  is  usually  continuous  until  near 
the  end,  when  a  sharp  break  often  occurs,  followed  by  one  or  more 
short  corrective  movements.  These  corrections  are  usually  not  over 
5°  of  movement.  They  are  always  noted  in  reading  the  plates  and  are 
recorded  in  the  tables.  But  their  algebraic  sums  are  so  nearly  constant 
that  no  correction  of  the  final  values  has  been  attempted  on  their 
account.  The  time  interruptions  of  the  record  were  made  by  the  fork- 
driven  vibrator.  They  indicate  hundredths  of  a  second.  Similar  time 

/     i  /     i    /  /    i   / 

!    ? 

1  '  •        1 

i 


FIG.  27. — Typical  eye-movement  record. 

records  appear  on  the  original  records  in  the  fixation  lines,  but  there  was 
no  particular  object  in  adding  to  the  burden  of  the  reading  by  counting 
them.  Instead,  we  took  the  total  number  of  eye-movements  in  5  sec- 
onds to  be  a  satisfactory  measure  of  the  fixation  pauses. 

RESULTS. 

All  our  data  on  the  velocity  of  the  eye-movements  are  collected  in 
table  25,  arranged  according  to  the  numbers  of  the  subjects.  Under 
movements  to  the  right  and  left  respectively  are  given  the  duration  of 
the  abductive  and  adductive  eye-movements,  together  with  the  extent 
of  the  corrective  movements.  Under  the  heading  "Total  movement" 
is  given  the  sum  of  the  durations  of  movement  to  the  right  and  left. 
This  is  made  the  basis  of  the  calculation  of  the  effect  of  alcohol,  in  the 
effort  to  equalize  any  fault  of  muscle-balance  that  may  have  been 
present  in  any  of  the  subjects,  or  induced  by  the  experiments.  Under 
"No.  of  cycles"  is  entered,  as  far  as  data  are  available,  the  number  of 
complete  cycles  of  eye-movement  and  fixation  that  occurred  in  5 
seconds  of  experiment. 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS. 


155 


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•      •      •         S4(N<NCNiOOT)<               IN(M(NCNIN^< 

1<5CO»OIO1C»CUS         COTjiTjilCTjiTj!^ 

1 

N 

-g 

2S          SrHSSIS 

CO   rH    CO   <N    »O  US                     rH        •        •        • 

:   :  :     •*  •'«aj5   :^-     *-  :^   :o   -'us 

fl 

:  :  : 

:  :  :    N    :         :    "*    N    :      :      :w 

•§ 

fe 

rHOO         05  to  10  rHfO 

05  05  t^  0  CDOO               00      • 

^      •  10  b-       -g^tG          «0  CO  CO  CO  CD       -r-l 

^ 

tNCNI        |3  N  <N  CON 

NCN^NWIN               2      •      •      • 

:  :  :    ^  i0"^  :    ^    S!c11c5<N<N  -S 

s 

US                               t» 

•  US                                        •  N 

T3 

o  1-4          10  10  i>  us* 

•  CO  10  00  10  CO 

•  N  iH  t>-  IM      -O            •  00  CO  00  <N      -UJ 

i 

1           +  +  +  + 

:  ii  ii  i          :  :  :  : 

:  :  :      :  +  +  i  +  :  i       :  +  +  +  +  :  + 

g 

oo  oo*        •  rH  co  b-  o 

rH                       •  rH   CO  ^  CO 

ii       :  i  i  M 

:  i  7  7  7  7         Li-L- 

•' UJ      ;            •      j  00  >C  CO      -US            •  ^  CO  00  rH  ^      •  « 

:  i    :      :  :  ii  i    :  i       :77  i  i    :7 

"Si 

1 

CM                      eo 

oo 

US                                      ;t» 

1 

M            ... 

1 

i                            :  :  : 

t-  CO          *1  CM  Tt<  00  r«H 
(M?H          »l  IN  Tt<  IOTJ< 

N.  CD  O  ^  CO  00               O      •      •      • 

rH   (N   CO  CO   CO  N                   O3       •       •       • 

•  1C  «N         t-      •  "3  (N  O  ^)M         J~»  O  »C  00  rH      •  O 

1 
1 

cT1                  '               c-T4                     .  ^ 

1 

B 

•US           •                               Tj| 

J3 

I 

:  i                      :  :  : 

:+  |   |   |    :  ,       :+  +  +  +  +  + 

1 

7  i      777  i 

•   rH   JO  CO  rH  O                       '       '       '  JH 

:  i  7  7  7  7         :  :  :  + 

•      •'                  •'  >0  00  X      '      •'  M            •  rj*  05  CO  CO  CD  -^ 

•  <N                       •       -r-l               •  rH   CO  Tfl  •*  t^  ^t 

:  :         :  i  i  i    :  :  i       :  i  i  i  M  i 

0 

«> 

00        0  0000 

CO 

oeooooo*          o    •    :o 

US                                          CO 

1 

1 

c$r3       o  CN  co  ^eo 

CM  CO  t~  »C  CO  O               OOj^^lC^: 

rH   rH   <N   <N   <N  CN                   O  Zs  ^  Ol  ^ 

^^rH      ^  <M  o  ic    •  jpgj      °5  co  oo  »c  ic  ic  eo 

i 

"^ 

rH                                                                                                               rH 

o 

:  :      :      :  :  :      :         :::::: 

8 

:  1^  :  :      :  |^ 

:  :  :  :  :  |     »      :  : 

:  |  »  :      :  :  :     |^;            :      :  | 

r§ 

:  jg»   :  :      :  |2 

:::::«    »      :  : 

:  ®S  :      :  :  :     jsg            :      :  fe 

•o 

1C           ^   rH   <N  CO  Tj*           *^ 

4             a 

rH(MCO^«O                 ^rHNCO^W 
1 

3CO          ^rHNCO^tOCO          ^rHCMCO^tCCO 

I          I 

MT3 
0  .0 

S 

1                     « 

|j 

3                    « 

I       I 

1Records  for  period 
2The  values  for  the  fi 
Illegible. 

158 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


m 


:          ««       88 

•  -i  d    'i-J^rt^^dpN        :OO-HOO'OOO  —  oo 

:++++++++++      :         111        +  +     i 


•  0  IN  f  0  0  «0  00  00  O«O 


i  i  i  i  i  i  i  i  i 


II 


I 

I 

iff  .3 
I.  -S 


§ 


10  eo  os  GO  IN  w  oo  n  o 


•  »o      IN  o  -H  o  o  o  o  ON 


++  111+ 


M  M  «0  •*  00  0  O        0  t 


oo-oi^cj    :o2<No 

i  i  i  i  i   i  i  i   i   i       :  ++    ++  :  i   i  +  i   i 


tf  1  iO  00 

-H-HO-H^<        ^t-OOlNOQpOOOOOO^  O 


-<^   .   .   . 

IN  n  •#  >o  «o  t>i  od  os  d      w  ~  <N  n 


10  0  t^  00  05  0  -H 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS. 


159 


'.  6    "  T-!  ,-i  o*       :  6    '  i-i  o       :  o  o  .-i  o 

•'  0  00  0  «C 

1 

O"O»OCNW            •  <N  "-I  •<*  O  ?•*            •  r-i  rH  Tf  N            -COOCOO 

++I+      :  i  +  i       i       :++++      :+      i 

•O^t^O            :cOOtON 

:   M   ii   i       :  ii  +  i 

03 

MIII       :  M   M   i       :  ii   M       :  M   M 

:   :  i  +  i  +      :  M   i   i 

a 

"O 

•      •         »O  <N  O  iQ  <N  t»         «d  W  O  5  O»                     (N  t~  US 

to  CO  CO  CO  iO  US        ^t-  •*'  •*  CO  «        to  iO  •*'  CO  •**' 

•CN<NO<NW         XS>Ot^tOO 

•  co'  o  cd  •*'  ^1       uj  co  co  •*'  eo* 

3 
"o 

lOOOt-W        to  X  IO  O  CO  t>        OCJCicOOO        CO  CO  CO  OS  O 

-ea»-  ?aaaa 

<u 

£§8S;8;    ^ggo-gs    SS8SS    8S2§§ 

(N^lOTfCO^M            tot^rHtO^ 

S^SI-lSS     22?2^S 

Is 

-*(N<N^i-H        ^1'H         C*  W  W        ^ilNC-lCNcN                     (NCNM 

us                          us              10      i>                      t«. 

OOO<NO*           -r-ico^-icoeo           ••*^H'COPN           -'-^O-fN 

•  00  00  CM  »H 
•'HOCOOO            -OcNO^H 

i  i        +  +  +  +  +      :  i  ++  i       :+    +  + 

:  :+  +  +  +      M   i  +  i 

s?  t: 

CNCOCOO^H               OOCOlNTft.            -(NCNt^t-            -lOOSCOCO 

+  ii      i         i  7  ii   i       :7  i   ii       MIII 

•      -OtOOON            -'dOiNCNfr. 

f~t                                       CO  »—  f  *H 

:  :     +  i  +      MIII 

was  gi\ 
Elecord£ 

•*                                     M                    >0        GO 

OOOCNO*         to»OO»OOUS        ^t-OOCN'-ieO         N-COt^COUS 

N      e»  o  o  o« 

00  0  CO  O  O  .H         «*  e4  ^*  t-4  M 

1 

r 

OOOt>OO         ^S^OCOOO^H         «5t~f~(NCN         cO^HiOiNSD 

S€S§2§     S3S2S 

L 

*m  ^ 

US                                       US                     >0        M 

OOOlNO*               -^H^Hr-^r-lO*                   (NOJCNlM               -i-lOOO* 

ii       :  i  i  +  ii        +  +  +  +      :  i         i 

•   ^H    0   CO-^I 

•     :  o  o  co  »-<         •  d    '  co  «-* 

:   :           +      :  i  +  +  + 

ll 
J 

cococoeoeo         -Oi-ii-ioo           O^^HUS         -i-iioTj<t» 

ii   ii   i       :     +  i                ii   ii       MIII 

•    •coeoeo^H         -t^cot-^H 

:  M  +  i  i       :+  i  i  i 

were  oh 

•^i                                       US                     to        «>                                 <3 

OOOiNO         ~sOO01Oo'         ®»O(NOW         OrHOOO 

J      1       ~ 

t»      to  t>  o  ON 

00OOCOO*        ^i'^-!-i<NO 
1      1                             1 

if 

88888    .888388    $*§§§    SSS8S 

S-CiSSS    888S8 

iol  expe 
^e-mov 

niiij  inLii  yjny  s 

liiiij.  IN 

ii 

•§3os'                 -«2'             'ojOs-             -feos 

g  g    •  .  g 

«~  ^ 

:  :      :^»"  :      :  :  :^2  :  :      :^g  :  :  :  :^    ^" 

:  :  :  :  :^S      :  :    ^ 

I'll          1 

O 

II 

<                           B                                                 H 

I                   I                B                 L 

"••                            —                        "a                         s  "a 

I 

JThe  values  for  the  fi 
2These  records  show 

160 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


O<-« 

, ,  ? 


^^2  «•*«» 
+  I  I  I  I  I 


++ 


O  •  O  Q 

i     +M          :  +  +    -f  +     i  i  i  + 


co  »o  -<  •*  «j o        •  "-i  -"  w  ~  N  «o  «o  •*  o»o 

+IIIM       :+iiiiii7      i 


i  i  i 


INOX-HCOO 

+    +11+ 


:il 


t^b-  N  0  f»0> 


2  £  00<»X2  2  21  J^  ***    ^  ^  2  2  w  "**  —  —  *  —  Ji 


I 


•  «D  000  00  -H 


CO  00 

•NCI    •-Hr-(co^^-Hp^        •NNc«3r*NccN»Me*N 

:++  :+  i  i  +  +  +      :  i  i  i  i  +  i  i  i  i  i 


ff^W 


tH  0  **  ~  CC  l^  t^  M  (N  XN 

:+  i    :  +  +  +  11+      :7  i  i  i  i  +7  i  +  i 


II 


sa 

O 
II 


l?: 

Q  — 


•  IN  •*  I-H  (N  T»<  ^H 

:  i ++ i +  + 


-H  rt  00«O  •  •*  CO  T|«  O  i«  -O*  M  -H  ^^ 

i  i  i  i  i  7  i  i  i      :  +  +  +     i  i  i  i  7  i 


i  ++  II  +  M+     :     i  i  +     i  i     +i 


II 


++  i         i  + 


|S 

11 

•5 

li 

•o  g 
II 

f1 


<-l  «  CO  •*  «0  « 


IX  —  c 
dose  B 


i 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS. 


161 


100US            '•               100.00 

r-!  d                         •  o  o  d    '    'o 

?; 

i  i  +  i  i  i       :        +    ++ 

s> 

<N  ^<  CO  i-<  10  N            -CO      •'  •*  •*  CO  N 

i  rt<      •               o      •      :      :            •'  fH      •                        •'  CO  "5      •'  1-1  O» 

1 

+  i  i  i  i  i       :  i    :  +  +  +  + 

:+  :       +  :  :  :       +  :             ++  :  +  + 

2 

CO  t»  00  00  >O  «O           ••*      •  •*  00  CO  00 
N  i-i  co  PH          •          •  I-H  i-i  co  «-i 

+  i  i  i  i  i       :  i    :  i  i  i  i 

:  i    :      :  i    :  i  i         i    :              ++    +  + 

ied  in  tl 
missing 

c3  N  K  £  §  £  us      £££§{2°,g 

:  :  :      :  :  :  :            :  :               :  :      :  : 

•S^i 

10  CO  10  Tf  10  U5  US         »0  10  10  10  10  »0  US 

.2^ 

*3      S) 

—  sasas  .saesssa 

.„„    ?«  j  j        »«,  >        §2SS     2S 

IB 

COt^Or^rH30t>           «i  CD  ^  CO   O  00  O 
22H°I04NC<)*           S3   £i  ^  N   N   C<1  N 

112  sg  in  %s  j|     ||s  || 

si 

lO  lO  >O  lO  >O  t»                                             N 
CO  iO  CO  •*'  10  US'           :  CO        r-j  CO  t>  US 

I   i   I   i   i   i       :+    +J  +  + 

00-            -CO-i-HiH               NrJICO                     ^HOTj<i-(O 

+  :      :  i    :+  i        +  +  +          +     MI 

1 

+  i  7  r7  i      :  i     7  i  77 

o:         -co-oous           NNt»               ^TttoocoM 

7  :      :7  :77        i  7  i            i  i  +  +  + 

'So 

li 

»O                                 N 

1 

00 

|"3 

3&S232S     52£?3S§a 

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1-8 
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•SOJ 

•dioc<ico<NFM         -co    '^tico^so 

:  i   i   i   i  +  i       :  i    :  i   i   i   i 

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C 

tzj 

;       US                                                        ;       t^ 

:+  :         i    :  +  +      :+      :         :  i  +  :  +  + 

J3  . 

:  +  i  7  i  7  i       :  i    :  i  7  7  i 

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•  10  :        222^      '  "*                '22  '2*° 
:  +  :        i  i  i  i       :  i       :         :  +  +  :  i  4- 

i 

1                        -                ^                     FH 

us                :      us                 us                             us 

lo-*'*      <p  t~-    :oco      COIN      N          •*  t-  co    :oeo 

1 

•M 

gogggog      5g£§-og 

g^g    8888S    §g    8       S82    %% 

fVQ 

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1 

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"3 

«::      :  j  :  jjj  j  j      :  :  :  | 

2      i  Is   :      i   i  ||      i     |    ^      i  i      :  | 

1 

2  :  :      :  :  :|S  :  :      :  :  :| 

2               .     »   rH        .                ••$'-t               •             >S               ••••> 

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1                      & 

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^cq'co       <^i-i<Nco'*       ^rHCxieo           ^^-iiNcOTjiio 

r  i      i      i 

1! 

H   ^                         ^ 

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«g|                      | 
1                      3 

5     §          i 

1          si                5!                5! 

^he  values  for  the  fi 
*Records  for  period 

162 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


I* 


Q<? 


i-U 

ll 


i      i  i  i  i 


S5.S  & 


2     '  S     '°°° 


oooeo        •  e«  o  oo  o  o  •        :t^ 

i  i       :  i  i  i  i  7  i       :  i 


s 


++    +      :  i 


:  +  +  +  +      :+    +       +      :  i 


:  i  i  i  i  i  i       :      :         :  :  i    :  :      :::::::      :  +  : 


r  41  M  64  **•  O  M  *4       IN  1-1  O  <M  O  ^  O  ©       §»  O  e«  »H  e*  M  *<       c^i  O  « 

"III  I 


s 


il 


e  N 


kin 
nt. 


51 


i 

1    *! 

II 


TABLE  26. — Summary  of  eye-movements. 
[Average  values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Movements  to  right. 

Movements  to  left. 

Total 

a 
o 

Difference.1 

Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Dura- 

T7»___. 

Difference.1 

Dura- 

Difference.1 

dura- 
tion 
of 

variatii 

Mum- 
3er  of 
cy- 

.1,,  . 

Total 

J,,__ 

Mean 

Num- 

tion. 

Horror. 

Dura- 

Error. 

tion. 

Error. 

Dura- 

Error. 

move- 
ment. 

I 

cles. 

dura- 
tion. 

vari- 
ation 

ber  of 
cycles. 

tion. 

tion. 

% 

Normal  subjects. 

1 

Normal  I  and  II: 

a 

deg.    1      a 

deg. 

(7 

deg. 

<r 

deg. 

or 

a 

<r 

(T 

II  

f  93 
\  96 

0.9   \       o 
-0.33!/  ~  3 

-  0.4 

[  92 
\  98 

0.9 
2.2 

H 

+  2.8 

[185 
\193 

7 
19 

6.4 
6.7 

I-* 

+  1 

-0.1 

Ill  

[  99 
\  99 

2.3   1        . 

o     \}-  1 

-  1.7 

[100 
\105 

3.7 
0 

}+• 

+  4.0 

[199 

\204 

9 
10 

7.8 
9.5 

j-  1 

-  2 

-0.4 

IV  

[112 

\120 

0-8  t      ? 
0.6   /       7 

-  0.8 

[116 

\128 

1.2 

2.8 

j-n 

-  3.7 

[228 
\248 

16 
15 

8.1 
8.0 

}-18 

-  3 

-0.8 

VI  

101 

0          +13 

0 

92 

0 

-  5 

198 

1 

VII  

[  99 
I  94 

0.4 
0.2 

}-. 

-  0.4 

[  98 
\106 

0.4 
5.0 

}-7 

+  1.1 

[197 
1200 

3 
6 

4.5 

[-11 

+  1 

+0.7 

IX.. 

88 

-0.7 

-  1 

+  1.0 

103 

1.2 

+  2 

+  9.0 

191 

6 

4.9 

+  1 

-  6 

X  

99 

3.1  !    -  9 

-   1.9 

107 

11.2 

-  8 

-  5.7 

207 

11 

5.5 

-16 

-  2 

-0.3 

Average  .  .  . 

f  99 
\102 

1.0 
0.1 

}-2 

-  0.6 

[101 
\109 

2.7 
2.5 

}-, 

+  1.2 

[201 
1211 

7 
12 

6.5 
7.2 

j  -10 

-  2 

-0.2 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  : 

II 

92 

o 

_  7 

o 

107 

10.0 

-22 

-  5.0 

199 

22 

5.6 

-29 

-22 

—  1.1 

III  

90 

0 

+  6 

0 

88 

-2.0 

+  9 

+  8.2 

178 

12 

8.7 

+16 

-  4 

-0.5 

IV  

VI  

99 

"e.'s' 

"-12" 

'-'3^5' 

112 

"2.5 

-  5 

-  0.5 

206 

11 

5.4 

-12 

+"3" 

-0.2 

VII  

90 

0.5 

0 

-  0.5 

111 

2.5 

-17 

+13.5 

201 

7 

5.7 

-17 

-   1 

+0.7 

IX  

91 

0.2 

—  1 

+  1.4 

123 

2.3 

-17 

-   1.1 

214 

18 

3.9 

-18 

-  2 

+1.6 

X  

109 

8.7 

-  8 

-  6.7 

122 

12.0 

-11 

+  5.2 

230 

14 

5.5 

-18 

+  2 

+0.2 

Average  .  .  . 

95 

2.6 

-  4 

-  1.5 

110 

4.5 

-10 

+  3.4 

205 

14 

5.8 

-13 

-  4 

+0.1 

Alcohol  (dose  B)  : 

II  

115 

0 

-21 

0 

122 

0 

-39 

0 

230 

3.7 

-67 

+2.3 

Ill  

100 

0 

0 

+  2.0 

106 

0 

-  5 

+  3.0 

207 

13 

9.2 

-  6 

0 

-0.2 

IV  

132 

0 

-24 

0 

141 

4.3 

-30 

+  5.7 

273 

15 

7.7 

-54 

-  4 

+1.5 

VI  

143 

0.6 

-44 

+  3.4 

136 

2.7 

-19 

+  5.2 

271 

25 

4.4 

-55 

-  8 

+1.5 

VII  

102 

0.8 

-15 

+11.2 

122 

3.8 

-17 

-  0.2 

224 

8 

3.9 

-32 

+  2 

+0.6 

IX  

111 

1.0 

-19 

+  1.0 

155 

-2.6 

-47 

+10.6 

267 

21 

4.9 

-67 

-  5 

-0.1 

x 

Average  .  .  . 

117 

0.4 

-20 

+  2.9 

130 

1.4 

-26 

+  4.0 

245 

16 

5.6 

-47 

-  3 

+0.9 

12  hr.  experiments. 

Normal: 

VI  

106 

4.5 

-21 

+  7.2 

115 

3.9 

-18 

+  6.8 

221 

16 

5.3 

-39 

+  3 

+1.0 

IX  

95 

0.7 

0 

-  6.4 

119 

-0.1 

+  1 

+  1.3 

214 

14 

4.7 

+  1 

—  1 

0 

Average  .  .  . 

100 

2.6 

-10 

-  0.4 

117 

1.9 

-  8 

+  4.0 

217 

15 

5.0 

-19 

+  1 

+0.5 

Alcohol  (dose  C)  : 

VI 

101 

1.8 

o 

+  2.1 

114 

2.7 

+  1 

-  2.7 

215 

17 

5.8 

0 

+  5 

-0.1 

IX  

100 

5.4 

-  4 

-   1.4 

122 

0.8 

-  2 

-  2.8 

223 

17 

4.9 

-  6 

-  5 

+0.1 

Average  .  .  . 

100 

3.6 

-  2 

+  0.3 

118 

1.7 

0 

-  2.7 

219 

17 

5.3 

-  3 

0 

0 

Psychopathic 

subjects. 

Normal  I  and  II  : 

XI 

[  89 
I  92 

4.5 
2.5 

}   « 

+  1.0 

f  75 
\105 

9.0 
3.0 

}-. 

+  5.0 

[164 
1  190 

4 
2 

I-7 

+  2 

XII  

[115 
\120 

3.5 
-0.5 

}+  3 

-  1.1 

[111 
\121 

1.0 
2.5 

}     • 

+  0.5 

[228 
1241 

19 

7 

}+2 

+  8 

XIV  

[  92 
\  93 

0.7 
3.5 

+  1 

-  0.6 

[  92 
1   88 

1.7 
1.5 

}-• 

+  0.6 

[182 
1182 

U 

+  5 

4 

Average  .  .  . 

f  99 
\102 

2.9 

1.8 

+  1 

-  0.2 

f93 
\105 

5.2 
2.3 

1-4 

+  2.0 

[191 

\204 

11 
4 

}-, 

+  5 

Alcohol  (dose  A): 

XI  

101 

3.5 

-11 

+  2.5 

97 

2.0 

-15 

-  1.0 

198 

-26 

+10 

XII  

120 

1.0 

-20 

+  1.0 

122 

2.8 

-12 

+  1.2 

242 

ii 

-32 

+  3 

XIV 

92 

1  0 

+  10 

90 

4.2 

—  10 

+  08 

182 

n 

Average  .  .  . 

104 

1.8 

-is 

+  1.5 

103 

s.e 

-12 

+  o!s 

207 

ll 

-29 

+  6 

Difference  equals  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 


163 


164  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

SUMMARY  OF  EYE-MOVEMENT  DATA. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  reliable  data  on  the  eye-movements  are  rela- 
tively few,  and  in  view  also  of  the  peculiar  importance  of  this  group  of 
measurements,  as  will  appear  in  the  concluding  chapter,  it  seemed 
advisable  to  make  the  summary  as  complete  as  possible.  A  complete 
statement  of  all  the  averages  is  consequently  given  in  table  26.  In  this 
table  appear  (1)  the  average  duration  of  the  eye-movements;  (2)  the 
average  errors;  and  (3)  the  average  differences,  under  each  of  the  three 
headings  "Movements  to  the  right,"  "Movements  to  the  left,"  and 
"Total,"  i.  e.,  the  sum  of  the  movements  in  both  directions.  In  the 
group  of  data  which  is  indicated  as  Normal  I  and  Normal  II  the  aver- 
ages for  both  normal  days  are  given  in  a  single  column.  But  the  dura- 
tions for  the  two  days  are  given  separately  for  each  subject,  whenever 
available,  connected  by  a  bracket.  Similarly  the  averages  at  the  foot 
of  the  columns  appear  double;  the  upper  ones  (99,  101,  201)  are  the 
average  durations  of  the  eye-movements  of  the  group  for  the  first 
normal  day;  the  lower  ones  (102,  109,  and  211)  are  the  corresponding 
values  for  the  second  normal  day.  In  giving  the  "differences"  for  this 
group  of  experiments  the  two  normal  days  have  been  averaged,  since 
that  is  the  form  in  which  they  will  be  used  in  the  subsequent  tables. 

The  summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  eye-movements  is  given 
in  tables  27  and  28.  In  the  former,  the  effect  is  computed  from  the 
averages  according  to  the  formula:  the  average  values  after  alcohol 
minus  the  average  values  of  the  two  normal  days  equals  the  effect  of 
alcohol.  From  table  27  it  appears  that  the  average  duration  after 
alcohol  is  almost  uniformly  greater  than  the  average  duration  on  normal 
days.  In  table  28  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  various  processes  is 
calculated  from  the  "differences."  In  the  left-hand  part  of  the  table 
the  effect  is  stated  in  average  differences;  in  the  right-hand  part  it  is 
stated  in  percentile  differences.  The  formulae  for  the  two  values  are 
given  in  footnotes  to  the  respective  tables. 

In  order  not  to  complicate  our  main  results  and  obscure  their  bearing 
on  the  main  question  at  issue,  we  would  for  the  present  abstract  from 
the  minor  questions  of  ocular  balance,  the  individual  differences  in  the 
interaction  between  the  internal  and  external  recti,  the  amount  of 
fixation  error,  and  the  number  of  cycles  for  the  sake  of  giving  greater 
emphasis  to  the  most  general  of  all  the  eye-movement  data  that  are 
given  under  the  heading  of  "Total."  This  averages  —  2.5  per  cent  after 
dose  A,  and  —18.6  per  cent  after  dose  B.  That  is  to  say,  after  30  c.c. 
of  alcohol,  eye-movements  of  40°,  without  regard  to  the  direction,  took 
an  average  of  2.5  per  cent  longer  time  than  under  normal  conditions. 
Similarly,  after  45  c.c.  of  alcohol,  they  took  an  average  of  18.6  per  cent 
longer  time  than  the  normal.  It  is  conspicuous  that  in  all  these  values 
there  is  only  one  exception,  viz,  Subject  III  after  dose  A.  It  is  further 
conspicuous  that  for  all  the  subjects  where  there  are  comparable  data, 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS. 


165 


dose  B  delayed  the  eye-movements  more  than  dose  A.  These  effects 
are  equally  obvious  in  the  effects  as  calculated  from  the  simple  averages 
which  are  given  in  table  27. 

The  number  of  cycles  in  5"  seems  to  show  a  significant  change  only  after 
dose  B,  when  it  is  diminished  by  15.8  per  cent.  In  this  case,  the  simple 
averages  given  in  table  27  again  furnish  corroborative  evidence.  Taken 
alone  they  would  have  indicated,  however,  that  both  doses  operate  to 
reduce  the  number  of  cycles. 

TABLE  27. — Summary  of  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  eye-movements  as  shown  by  changes  in  the 
average  values.     (Alcohol— normal.) 

[Time  units  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and  kind  of 
experiment. 

Effect  on  move- 
ments to  right. 

Effect  on  move- 
ments to  left. 

Effect 
on  total 
move- 
ment. 

Effect 
on  mean 
varia- 
tion. 

Effect  on 
number 
of  cycles. 

Duration 
of  move- 
ment. 

Error. 

Duration 
of  move- 
ment. 

Error. 

Normal  subjects: 
Dose  A: 
II  

<r 
-  2 
-  9 
o 

-  6 
+  3 
+10 
-  1 

+21 
+  1 
+16 
+42 
+  6 
+23 
+18 

-  5 
+  5 
0 

+11 
+  3 
0 
+  5 

deg. 
-0.3 
-1.1 
+6.5 
+0.2 
+0.9 
+5.6 
+1.9 

-0.3 
-1.1 
-0.7 
+0.6 
+0.5 
+1.7 
+0.1 

-2.7 
+4.7 
+1.0 

0 
-0.5 
-1.1 
-0.5 

a 
+12 
-14 
+20 
+  9 
+20 
+15 
+10 

+27 
+  4 
+19 
+44 
+20 
+52 
+28 

-  1 

+  3 

+  1 

+  7 
+  6 
0 
+  4 

deg. 
+8.5 
-3.8 
+2.5 
-0.2 
+1-1 
+0.8 

ff 
+10 
-23 

+  8 
+  3 
+23 
+23 

ff 
+  9 
+  3 
+10 
+  3 
+12 
+  3 

-0.9 

+0.1 

"+i.'2" 

-1.0 
0 

Ill  
*VI  
VII  
IX. 

X  

Average  
DoseB: 
II  
Ill  
IV  

-1.5 
-1.8 
+2.3 
+2.7 
+1.1 
-3.8 
-0.2 

-1.2 
+0.9 
-0.1 

-4.0 
+1.1 
+2.6 
-0.1 

+41 
+  6 
+35 

+73 
+26 

+76 
+43 

-  6 
+  9 

+  1 

+21 
+  8 
0 

+10 

+  4 
0 
+24 
+  4 
+15 
+  9 

+  1 
+  3 
+  2 

"11*2*' 

+  7 
+  2 

-2.8 
+0.6 
-0.3 

-0.6 
0 
-0.6 

+0.5 
+0.2 
+0.3 

VI  
VII 

*IX  

Average  
12  hr.  experiments: 
DoseC: 
VI  
IX  

Average  
Psychopathic  subjects: 
XI  
XII  
XIV 

Average  

xNo  measurements  of  the  eye-movements  with  dose  A  were  made  with  Subject  IV. 
2No  measurements  of  the  eye-movements  with  dose  B  were  made  with  Subject  X. 

The  data  for  the  psychopathic  subjects  are  complete  only  for  Sub- 
jects XI  and  XII.  They  show  a  consistent  effect  of  alcohol  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  normal  group,  only  considerably  more  in  amount, 
averaging  12.9  per  cent  after  dose  A.  The  incomplete  data  for  Subject 
XIV  are  in  the  same  direction  as  those  for  Subjects  XI  and  XII. 

The  two  12-hour  experiments  show  opposite  tendencies,  as  usual  in 
these  two  subjects. 


166 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


There  is  no  consistent  change  in  the  errors  of  fixation  due  to  the  alco- 
hol dose.  Apparently  the  average  error  after  dose  A  was  materially 
greater  than  the  normal  error,  or  the  error  after  dose  B.  The  mean 
variation  is  increased  after  both  dose  A  and  dose  B  in  table  27,  but  this 
change  does  not  stand  the  test  of  the  computation  by  differences. 

In  addition  to  these  generalizations  with  respect  to  the  effect  of 
alcohol,  there  are  other  less  important,  but  none  the  less  interesting, 
general  tendencies  of  our  data.  The  errors  of  fixation  which  occurred 
in  eye-movements  to  the  left  (adductive  movements)  are  conspicuously 
larger  than  those  in  the  movements  to  the  right  (abductive  movements). 
While  there  are  occasional  exceptions  to  this  rule,  it  seems  to  apply  to 
all  subjects,  including  the  psychopathies.  In  general,  the  errors  of 

TABLE  28. — Summary  of  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  eye-movements  as  shoum  by  changes  in  the  differences. 
[Time  units  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subjects. 

Effect  as  shown  in  average  differences.1 

Effect  as  shown  in  percentile  differences.* 

Movements 
to  right. 

Movements 
to  left. 

I 

Mean  variation. 

Number  of  cycles. 

Movements 
to  right. 

Movements 
to  left. 

Num- 
Total.  ber  of 
cycles. 

"83 

Error. 

Duration  of 
movement. 

Error. 

Dura- 
tion of 
move- 
ment. 

Error. 

Dura- 
tion of 
move- 
ment. 

Error. 

Normal: 
Dose  A: 
II  
Ill  
»VI  
VII  
IX  
X  
Average  .... 
DoseB: 
II  
Ill  
IV  
VI  
VII  
«IX  
Average  .... 
12  hr.  experiments: 
Alcohol: 
VI  
IX  
Average  .... 
Psychopathic: 
XI  
XII  
XIV  
Average  .... 

a 
-  4 
+  7 
-25 
+  5 
0 
+  1 
-  3 

-18 
+  1 
-17 
-57 
-10 
-18 
-19 

+21 

-  4 
+  8 

-11 
-23 

-17 

deg. 
+  0.4 
+  1.7 

-'6!i 

+  0.4 
-  4.8 
-  0.5 

+  0.4 

+  3.7 
+  0.8 

+ii!e 

0 
+  3.3 

-  5.1 
+  6.0 
0 

+  1.6 

tf:i 

+  ,.7 

a 
-10 
+  8 
0 
-10 
-19 
-  3 
-  6 

-27 
-  6 
-19 
-14 
-10 
-49 
-21 

+19 
-  3 
+  8 

-7 
-12 

--- 

deg. 
-  7.8 
+  4.2 

+  12.4 
-10.1 
+  10.9 
+  1.9 

-  2.8 
-  1.0 
+  9.4 

-1.3 
+  1.6 
+  1.2 

-  9.5 
-  4.1 
-  6.8 

-  6.0 
+  0.7 
+  0.2 
-  1.7 

a 
-13 

+17 

-5 
-19 
-  2 

1 

-  5 
-36 

a 
-23 
-  2 

-2 
+  4 
+  4 
-  4 

+  '2 
-  1 

-1.0 
-0.1 

"6 

+0^5 
-0.1 

+2.4 
+0.2 
+2.3 

p.ct. 
-  4.5 
+  7.1 
-25.8 
+  5.4 

+"i!o 

-  3.4 

-19.6 
+  1.0 
-15.6 
—55  3 

p.  ct 

+  33  3 
+  50.0 
-282.0 
+  66.2 

+530^0 

p.  ct. 
-11.8 
+  7.9 

-10.4 

-18.1 
-  2.8 
-  7.0 

-32.1 
-  5.9 
-17.0 
—  13  6 

p.  ct. 
-181.5 
+  73.7 

+161.0 
-220.0 
+  93.2 
-  14.7 

-104.0 
-     2.5 
+348.0 

p.  ct.     p.  ct. 
-  7.5-  1.7 

+  8.5-12.4 

-'2.J 
-  9.8 
-  0.9 
-  2.5 

-29.0 
-  2.5 
-16.2 

-10.5 
-34.7 
-18.6 

+19.5 
-  3.3 
+  8.1 

-11.0 

:14:9 

-H 

+  9.2 
-  1.6 

+37.4 
+  2.3 
+25.8 

-2^2 
+15  ^8 

-18.3 
+  2.1 
-  8.1 

-20 
-68 
-33 

+39 
-  7 
+16 

-19 
-34 

+  1 
+  1 
+  1 

+  2 
-  4 
-  1 

+  8 
-  5 

-0.1 

+1.2 

-1.1 
+0.1 
-0.5 

-11.0 
-20.1 
-20.1 

+22.6 
-  4.2 
+  9.2 

-12.1 
-20.4 

-16^2 

+290.0 
+410  !o 

-  68.0 
-500.0 

-284'0 

+  32.0 
+  161.5 
+  80.0 
+  91.2 

-10.1 
-46.2 
-20.8 

+17.7 
-  2.5 
+  7.6 

-  8.3 
-10.5 
-  5.9 
-  8.2 

-  35.2 
+  20.0 
+  45.3 

-190.0 
+410.0 
+110.0 

-  95.2 
+  21.2 
+     6.6 

-*.* 

-26 

+  1 



Effect  on  the  average  difference  equals  (av.  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc.,  alcohol)  minus  (av.  1-2,  1-3,1-4,  etc., 
normal). 

*Effect  on  the  percentile  difference  equals  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  average  difference  divided  by  the 
average  of  the  corresponding  normals  of  the  day. 

'No  records  for  Subject  IV.  4No  records  for  Subject  X. 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS.  167 

fixation  decrease  with  repetition,  as  is  shown  by  the  comparison  of  the 
two  normal  days.  Comparison  of  the  normal  days  also  shows  that  as 
a  consequence  of  practice  the  duration  of  the  eye-movements  increases 
lightly  for  both  groups  of  subjects.  These  two  changes  are  probably 
to  be  regarded  as  causally  related.  With  decreased  errors  of  fixation, 
the  eye-movement  sweeps  become  more  nearly  full  40°  and  their  dura- 
tion would  naturally  increase  proportionately. 

If  this  connection  is  admitted,  the  actual  angle  velocity  of  the  eye- 
movements  appears  to  have  been  unaffected  by  the  experimental>repeti- 
tion  under  otherwise  similar  circumstances.  In  spite  of  the  larger  errors, 
however,  the  adductive  movements  average  slower  than  the  abductive. 
This  difference  does  not  appear  to  be  due  to  decreased  maximum  vel- 
ocity of  the  eye-movements,  but  to  a  proportionately  slower  third  phase, 
i.e.,  the  final  5°  are  slower.  Any  attempt  to  explain  this  peculiarity  of 
our  subjects  would  lead  us  too  far  from  our  main  problems. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  RECIPROCAL  INNERVATION  OF 
THE  FINGER. 

Eye-movements  are  not  adapted  to  show  the  rapidity  of  free  oscil- 
latory movements  of  a  member,  and  the  consequent  speed  of  alter- 
nating reciprocal  innervations  of  antagonistic  muscles.  Successive  eye- 
movements  are  regularly  separated  by  moments  of  fixation,  seldom 
less  than  0.2"  in  duration.  These  are  moments  of  significant  vision, 
for  the  sake  of  which  the  eye-movements  exist.  True  oscillatory  move- 
ments of  the  eye  can  not  be  produced  at  will  without  considerable 
special  practice. 

In  adopting  the  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  middle  finger  for  meas- 
uring the  speed  of  alternating  reciprocal  innervation  of  antagonistic 
muscles,  we  lose  the  almost  ideal  conditions  with  respect  to  independ- 
ence of  conscious  control  that  obtain  in  measuring  the  velocity  of  the 
eye-movements.  Finger-movements  are  subject  to  all  sorts  of  inter- 
current,  facilitating  and  inhibiting  conscious  interference.  The  con- 
ditions which  modify  the  rate  of  voluntary  reciprocal  innervations  have 
not  all  been  experimentally  located.  In  long  experiments  one  will 
expect  warming-up,  fatigue  phenomena,  and  spurts  of  various  sorts, 
as  well  as  lapses  of  attention  and  interest,  and  changes  due  to  subjective 
feelings  of  discomfort.  (Compare  Wells. *)  Long-continued  finger- 
movements  appear  to  violate  our  principle  of  simplicity  at  almost  as 
many  points  as  the  ergographic  experiments. 

These  considerations,  and  practical  experience  in  a  series  of  experi- 
ments in  the  fall  of  1912,  led  us  to  abandon  the  arrangement  of  this 
experiment  which  was  proposed  in  the  program,  namely,  movements 
for  intervals  of  30"  followed  after  5"  by  another  group  of  movements 
for  5".  Other  things  being  equal,  that  would  be  a  most  desirable 

'Wells,  Am.  Journ.  Psychol.,  1908,  19,  pp.  345  and   437. 


168          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

arrangement;  it  would  give  valuable  data  not  only  with  respect  to 
oscillation  frequency,  but  with  respect  to  the  onset  of  fatigue  and  the 
rapidity  of  recovery.  The  insurmountable  difficulty  in  this  arrange- 
ment was  that  it  proved  impossible  to  secure  maintained  maximum 
effort  from  our  subjects  for  30  consecutive  seconds.  Unintentionally 
perhaps,  but  none  the  less  really,  some  tended  to  adopt  an  initial  speed 
that  they  could  maintain.  Spurts  appeared  from  uncontrolled  sources. 
Some  may  have  been  purely  physiological.  Some  were  clearly  connected 
with  the  feeling  that  the  effort  had  lapsed.  In  connection  with  the 
related  but  more  complex  tapping  test,  Wells  states  (p.  356):  "The 
feelings  of  annoyance  arising  from  a  long-continued  test  make  it  desir- 
able that  the  experiment  should  be  one  giving  the  requisite  data  in 
as  short  a  time  as  possible."  This  may  be  generalized  as  follows :  Every 
consideration,  practical  as  well  as  theoretical,  demands  the  shortest 
experimental  period  that  will  give  the  requisite  data.  In  this  particular 
case,  spurts  and  variability  due  to  discomfort  and  other  causes  were 
enormously  reduced  by  adopting  shorter  experimental  periods  of  8". 
That  these  shorter  periods  were  in  fact  more  satisfactory  than  the  30" 
periods  appears  from  the  relative  uniformity  of  the  results. 

Even  in  this  relatively  short  experimental  time,  a  regular  decrement 
in  the  speed  of  oscillation,  as  measured  by  2"  intervals,  shows  the 
beginning  of  a  fatigue  process.  Regularity  in  the  onset  of  this  fatigue 
process  is  our  best  insurance  against  initial  indifference,  and  sub- 
maximal  finger-movements.  If  no  fatigue  occurs,  one  suspects  initial 
indifference.  But  if  the  fatigue  drop  is  regular  and  normal,  initial 
shirking  is  improbable,  since  it  is  beyond  the  capacity  of  an  ordinary 
subject  to  simulate  this  gradual  onset  of  fatigue. 

Other  forms  of  incomplete  adaptation  to  the  experimental  conditions 
are  less  easily  determined.  Correlated  pulse-  and  respiration-rate  should 
be  worth  something  in  this  respect  as  an  indicator,  but  our  knowledge 
of  the  pulse-changes  due  to  effort  allows  at  present  no  numerical  correc- 
tion of  results  from  this  source.  A  variable  interplay  of  changed 
attention,  effort,  and  adaptation  to  the  experimental  conditions  must  be 
admitted  as  a  possible,  if  not  an  inevitable,  source  of  disturbance  of  the 
results  of  the  finger-movement  tests.  If  our  cases  are  sufficiently 
numerous,  however,  accidental  disturbances  of  this  sort  should  compen- 
sate and  leave  the  general  tendency  of  alcohol,  both  in  direction  and 
amount,  clearly  marked. 

TECHNIQUE. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  with  existing  data,  our  measurements 
of  the  most  rapid  possible  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  finger  may  be 
regarded  as  the  tapping  test  reduced  to  its  simplest  form.  As  ordinarily 
used,  the  "tapping  test"  measures  the  number  of  electric  contacts  that 
can  be  made  by  the  subject,  either  between  a  stylus  and  a  plate,  or  by 
the  closure  of  a  telegraph-key.  Several  considerations  combine  to 
make  both  of  these  processes  physiologically  unsatisfactory: 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS.  169 

(1)  A  succession  of  taps  is  physiologically  a  succession  of  interrupted 
reciprocal  innervations.     Whether  the  interruption  occurs  early  or  late 
in  the  process,  whether  much  or  little  force  is  exerted  in  the  tap  itself, 
will  be  an  experimental  accident  which  will  be  likely  to  suffer  more  or 
less  irregular  changes  as  the  subject's  experience  suggests  possible 
improvements.     Wells1  found  that  one  effect  of  practice  was  to  shorten 
the  periods  of  contact  with  the  key.     Langfeld2  found  that  practice 
tended  to  lessen  the  extent  of  the  movement. 

(2)  A  second  disadvantage  of  the  finger-taps  as  recorded  by  the 
telegraph-key  or  stylus,  is  the  difficulty  of  isolating  the  finger-move- 
ments from  other  movements  of  the  arm  and  hand.     Probably  the 
interchange  of  finger,  wrist,  and  arm  movements  is  less  apt  to  occur  in 
short  periods  than  it  is  in  long  periods  of  experiment  under  the  incentive 
of  conscious  fatigue.     But  practice  may  change  the  type  of  movement, 
and  may  bring  different  groups  of  muscles  into  use  in  the  succeeding 
experimental  periods.     It  seems  certain  that  the  tapping  time  of  the 
different  limbs  is  not  uniform.     In  an  unpublished  experimental  study 
of  the  finger-movements  by  Dodge,  it  proved  possible  to  get  a  tapping- 
rate  of  the  arm  when  all  the  muscles  of  the  arm  were  in  voluntary- 
tetanus  that  could  not  be  duplicated  with  the  finger  alone.     In  less 
degree  the  same  holds  true  of  the  wrist-movements.    This  seems  to  cor- 
respond with  the  finding  of  Griffiths,3  that  "loaded  muscles  in  tetanus 
show  a  higher  number  of  responses  per  second  than  unloaded."     In  the 
above  case,  the  load  was  the  contraction  of  the  antagonistic  muscle. 

(3)  Moreover,  all  arrangements  for  recording  the  rapidity  of  the 
finger-movements  by  stylus  or  telegraph-key  demand  a  more  or  less 
consciously  controlled  position  of  the  subject's  arm,  with  a  more  or  less 
conscious  control  of  the  aim  of  the  finger  or  arm  movements.     By 
reducing  the  tapping  test  to  its  lowest  physiological  term,  i.  e.,  the  true 
reciprocal  innervation  of  the  finger,  we  have  preserved  the  freedom  of 
movement  of  the  original  experiments  by  Von  Kries,4  and  of  the  myo- 
graphic  experiments  by  Binet  and  Vaschide,5  without  introducing  the 
questionable  ergographic  complication  of  the  latter  work. 

The  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  finger,  like  the  tapping  test,  seems 
to  satisfy  our  demands  for  relatively  slow  practice  improvements.  As 
Wells  states,  "This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  such  unsystematic 
practice  in  this  function  as  we  receive  in  normal  life  eliminated  the 
marked  gains  so  frequently  seen  at  the  beginning  of  practice  curves." 

APPARATUS. 

In  our  experiments  records  of  the  finger-movements  were  never  taken 
separately,  but  always  in  conjunction  with  corresponding  pulse-records. 
The  pulse-records  are  electro-cardiograms.  The  finger-movements 
were  recorded  on  the  same  photographic  record  by  the  following  device: 


.  Journ.  Psychol.  1908,  19,  p.  445.  4Von  Kries,  Archiv  f.  Physiol.,  1886,  Supplbd.,  p.  1. 
2Langfeld,  Psychol.  Review,  1915,  22,p.  453.  8Binet  and  Vaschide,  L'Annee  Psychol.,  1897,  p.  267. 
'Griffiths,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1888,9,  p.  39. 


170  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

In  front  of  the  slit  of  the  photographic  recorder  of  the  string  galva- 
nometer which  recorded  the  pulse,  a  light  wooden  lever  was  placed  so 
as  to  throw  a  shadow  across  the  slit.  The  other  end  of  this  recording 
lever  was  attached  to  the  finger  by  a  light  rod  held  against  the  upper 
phalanx  of  the  middle  finger  by  the  pressure  of  an  elastic  band.  The 
axis  of  the  lever  was  so  placed  as  to  decrease  the  amplitude  of  the  move- 
ment in  the  proportion  5  to  1 .  The  mass  of  the  entire  recording  system  is 
about  7  grams.  Since  the  leverage  is  the  most  favorable  possible,  both 
with  respect  to  the  recording-lever  and  its  attachment  to  the  finger, 
interference  with  the  free  movement  of  the  finger  is  objectively  and  sub- 
jectively so  slight  as  to  be  practically  negligible.  The  finger  feels  no 
resistance  to  starting  and  no  instrumental  momentum  in  stopping. 

POSITION  OF  THE  SUBJECT. 

For  measurements  of  the  finger-movements,  the  subject  was  seated 
in  the  steamer-chair  approximately  at  position  I.  But  the  steamer- 
chair  was  so  moved  by  the  operator  that  the  subject  was  nearer  the 
recording-camera  of  the  string  galvanometer  than  in  other  experiments 
from  position  I.  A  stand  with  an  adjustable  arm-rest  was  so  placed 
that  the  subject's  right  arm  was  comfortably  supported  with  the  hand 
near  the  edge  of  the  recording-camera  table,  but  slightly  above  the  level 
of  its  top.  The  palm  of  the  hand  rested  against  a  vertical  wedge- 
shaped  support,  against  which  it  was  held  by  the  flexible  but  regular 
pressure  of  a  broad  elastic  band.  The  sharp  end  of  this  wedge  rested 
against  the  palm  of  the  subject's  hand,  leaving  the  digits  entirely  free 
to  move  in  a  horizontal  plane.  In  a  relaxed  position,  the  upper  phalanx 
of  the  middle  finger  should  be  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  recording- 
camera,  so  that  when  it  was  attached  to  the  recording  levers  there 
would  be  as  little  lateral  movement  of  the  levers  as  possible.  The 
operator  was  always  careful  that  there  should  be  no  unnatural  or  forced 
position  of  the  hand  or  fingers,  and  that  the  arm  was  comfortable. 
There  was  no  restriction  of  the  movement  of  the  other  fingers,  but  their 
movement  did  not  affect  the  recording  lever. 

EXPERIMENTAL  PROCEDURE. 

While  the  subject  sat  in  a  half-reclining  position  in  the  steamer-chair, 
with  electrodes  in  position,  and  connected  for  recording  his  electro- 
cardiogram as  in  word-reaction  movements,  the  chair  was  slid  into 
position  by  the  operator.  The  subject's  arm  was  placed  on  the  arm- 
support,  so  that  his  fingers  were  entirely  free  beyond  the  edge  of  the 
hand-support  against  which  his  palm  was  held  by  the  pressure  of  the 
elastic  band.  A  fine  rubber  band  about  1  cm.  in  diameter  was  then 
placed  so  that  it  rested  on  the  fold  of  the  skin  which  separates  the  first 
phalanx  of  the  finger  from  the  palm  of  the  hand.  This  elastic  band 
served  to  hold  an  offset  from  the  end  of  the  horizontal  member  of  the 
recording  levers,  and  thus  formed  a  flexible  but  close  connection  between 


FKJ.  2S. — Typical  records  of  the  finger-oscillations  and  pulse  of  two  subject? 


Flo.  29. — Reproduction  of  a  t?rnporal-pulse  record  as  made  by   the  Dodge  Iclcpli 
in  series  with  the  string  galvanometer.      (See  p.  235.) 


MOTOR  COORDINATIONS.  171 

the  finger  and  the  recording  levers.  The  vertical  member  of  the  re- 
cording levers  was  then  adjusted  to  cast  its  shadow  on  the  center  of 
the  slit  of  the  recording-camera.  The  standard  instructions  were 
repeated  by  the  operator.  While  the  subject  was  entirely  in  position 
and  relaxed  as  far  as  practicable,  a  normal  pulse-record  was  taken 
without  finger-movement.  Immediately  after  this  record  a  combined 
pulse-  and  finger-movement  record  was  taken  as  follows:  When  the 
record  started  the  operator  said  "go,"  in  time  with  the  stroke  of  a 
Jaquet  clock,  beating  seconds.  After  8"  the  operator  gave  the  signal 
"stop."  After  a  60"  rest,  but  without  disturbing  the  position  of  the 
subject's  arm  or  finger,  a  second  finger-movement  record  was  taken 
like  the  first. 

The  standard  instructions,  repeated  before  each  experiment,  were 
as  follows:  At  the  signal  "go,"  move  the  middle  finger  back  and  forth 
as  fast  as  you  can  until  you  receive  the  signal  "stop." 

Figure  28  reproduces  two  typical  records  of  the  reciprocal  innerva- 
tion  of  the  finger  by  different  individuals.  They  should  be  read  from 
left  to  right.  The  lower  line  in  each  case  marks  the  seconds  (Jaquet 
clock) .  The  next  line  is  an  electro-cardiogram  (body  leads) ;  the  upper 
line  is  the  respiration  curve.  Inspiration  is  represented  by  a  rising 
curve.  The  oscillating  line  shows  the  finger-movements. 

Instructions  to  the  assistants  who  were  detailed  to  read  finger-move- 
ment records  were  to  commence  reading  6  movements  from  the  begin- 
ning in  order  to  avoid  the  initial  irregularities,  which  seem  to  be  a 
characteristic  of  the  beginning  of  almost  every  finger-oscillation  curve. 
The  reader  then  counted  the  number  of  complete  oscillations  in  2", 
4",  6",  and  8",  respectively.  Full  8"  of  oscillation  were  so  rarely  com- 
pleted in  legible  form  that  they  seldom  appear  in  the  results.  For  the 
sake  of  uniformity  the  calculations  are  all  based  on  6"  of  oscillation. 

RESULTS. 

The  data  for  the  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  finger  are  given  in 
table  29,  under  the  several  subjects  arranged  in  numerical  order.  The 
number  of  complete  finger  oscillations  in  2",  4",  and  6"  is  entered  in  the 
appropriate  columns.  In  the  earliest  experiments,  as  for  example 
those  with  Subject  II  on  October  8  and  September  23,  only  one  record 
was  taken  at  each  experiment.  In  the  later  experiments,  where  two 
records  were  taken,  the  data  from  both  are  given,  together  with  their 
average.  Wherever  available  these  averages  are  used  in  the  elabora- 
tion of  the  results. 


172 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


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178 


PSYCHOLOGICAL    KFKKCTS    OK    ALCOHOL. 


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MOTOR    COORDINATIONS. 


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PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


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181 


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182 


PSYCHOLOGICAL    EFFECTS   OF    ALCOHOL. 


SUMMARY  OF  FINGER  MOVEMENT  DATA. 

Summaries  of  the  data  on  the  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  finger  are 
given  in  tables  30  and  31.  Table  30  gives  the  average  number  of 
oscillations;  table  31  gives  the  average  differences  between  the  first 
and  the  succeeding  periods  of  each  session.  In  table  30  the  total 
averages  for  the  normal  subjects  show  how  uniform  is  the  fatigue  effect 
even  within  the  6"  periods  of  our  experiments.  The  averages  of  the 

TABLE  30. — Summary  of  tiie  average  number  of  reciprocal  innervalions  of  the  middle  finger. 


Normal. 

Alcohol  (dose  A).1 

Alcohol  (dose  B)  . 

Number  of 

subject. 

Number  of 
experiment. 

2" 

4" 

6" 

2" 

4" 

6" 

2" 

4" 

6" 

Normal  sub- 

ject*: 

II 

I.  . 

13.5 

25.6 

37.5 

13.7 

26.9 

39.6 

11.6 

22.6 

33.3 

II  

11.7 

23.5 

34.7 

Av  

12.6 

24.5 

36.1 

III 

I  

36.8 

13.0 

25.1 

37.0 

12.7 

24.3 

35.6 

11  

12.4 

24.4 

35.8 

Av  

12.4 

24.4 

36.3 

IV 

I.  . 

35.7 

37.6 

12.3 

24.4 

35.9 

II 

12.4 

24.5 

36.4 

Av  

12.4 

24.5 

36.0 

VI  

I  

9.6 

18.9 

27.8 

8.4 

16.4 

24.2 

8.8 

17.5 

25.8 

VII 

I  

12.8 

25.3 

37.0 

12.2 

23.9 

34.4 

11.7 

22.8 

33.4 

II  

12.9 

25  A 

36.8 

Av.  ...  . 

12.8 

25.3 

36.9 

VIII 

I.. 

11.4 

22.2 

32.4 

10.9 

22.2 

33.2 

IX  

I  

12.8 

24.7 

36.1 

11.7 

23.0 

34.1 

'io.s 

'21.7' 

31.9 

X  

I.. 

16.1 

31.0 

45.3 

16.1 

31.6 

46.6 

Total 

-» 

average.  . 

12.5 

24.5 

35.8 

12.3 

24.2 

35.8 

11.3 

22.2 

32.6 

12   hr.    experi- 

ments: 

VI  

I  

8.8 

17.5 

26.0 

>9.1 

48.0 

»26.8 

IX. 

I  

11.6 

23.6 

>11.2 

»23.1 

Average  . 

10.2 

20.5 

2e!6 

'10.1 

'20.5 

•26  .8 

Psychopathic 

subjects: 

XI  

I  

12.4 

24.1 

35.4 

12.4 

24.3 

35.5 

XII  

I  

10.9 

21.5 

31.6 

10.7 

21.2 

31.7 

XIV 

I  

14.8 

28.7 

42.3 

14.5 

28.7 

41.8 

Average  . 

12.7 

24.8 

36.4     12.5 

24.1 

36.3 

'Dose  C  (12  c.c.)  was  used  in  the  12-hour  experiments. 

normal  experiments  show  that  in  the  last  2"  the  performance  fell  off 
9.6  per  cent  of  the  first  2".  There  are  no  exceptions  to  the  rule  among 
the  normal  subjects.  A  similar  fatigue  process  appears  after  alcohol. 
But  it  is  conspicuous  that  it  is  less  than  on  normal  days.  After  dose 
A  the  last  period  of  2"  differs  from  the  first  2"  by  only  5.7  per  cent. 
After  dose  B  the  difference  is  8  per  cent.  Without  further  knowledge 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS. 


183 


of  the  conditions  that  relate  initial  depression  of  the  performance  to 
decreased  fatigue,  one  must  be  cautious  about  ascribing  this  decreased 
fatigue  after  alcohol  directly  to  the  alcohol.  But  it  is  a  rather  sug- 
gestive fact  that  the  decreased  fatigability  after  dose  A  changes  a 
depression  of  the  phenomenon  at  the  end  of  the  first  2"  to  an  equally 
good  performance  at  the  end  of  6".  If  one  might  venture  a  prelimi- 
nary hypothesis,  it  looks  as  though  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  reciprocal 

TABLE  31. — Summary  of  average  differences  between  the  first  and  succeeding  periods  of  reciprocal 
innervation  of  the  middle  finger. 


Normal. 

Alcohol  (dose  A).1 

Alcohol  (dose  B). 

Number  of 

subject. 

Number  of 
experiment. 

2" 

4" 

6" 

2" 

4" 

6" 

2" 

4" 

6" 

Normal  sub- 

jects : 

II 

1 

-1.0 

-0.9 

-1.0 

II  .  '.'.  .  '.'.'.  '.  .'. 

+0.7 

+0.9 

+1  2 

Av 

-0.1 

0 

+0.1 

+0.3 

+1.6 

+2.0 

+1.1 

+2.6 

+3.9 

III  

T 

+  1-4 

II.'..'..    '.'.'.      0 

+0.2' 

+0.1 

Av  !     0 

+0.2 

+0.7 

+0^5 

+1.5 

+2^o' 

-0.6 

-o'e 

-1~4 

IV  

I.. 

-4.0 

II  -0.1 

-0.1 

+0.2 

+0.4' 

-0.1 

+0.1 

+0.2 

Av  

-0.1 

-0.1 

-1.9 

VI  

I  

+0.7 

+1.1 

+0.9 

+1.6 

+3.3 

+5.3 

+0.8 

+1.6 

+2.5 

VII 

I  

-0.1 

-0.1 

+0.1 

II  

-0.6 

-0.5 

+0.1 

+  1^6 

+Y3' 

+4  A' 

+  1.6 

+3.0 

+4.2' 

Av  

-0.3 

-0.3 

+0.1 

!  

VIII  

I  

+0.7 

+0.9 

-0.2 

+2.1 

+2.8 

+3.3 

IX  

I  

-0.4 

-1.5 

-4.1 

+0.1 

+2.0 

+3.0 

+1.4    +2^9 

+4.9 

X  

I  

-0.5 

-1.1 

-0.4 

+0.1 

+0.3 

-0.8 

Total 

average.  . 

0 

-0.1 

-0.6 

+0.9 

+2.0 

+2.7 

+0.7 

+1.6 

+2.4 

12   hr.   experi- 

ments: 

VI  

I  

-0.1 

0 

-0.25 

'+0.1 

1-0.17 

1-0.1 

IX  

I  

-1.5 

-1.5 

»+1.9 

'+1.9 

Average  . 

-1.3 

-0.7 

'+1.0 

1+0.8 

Psychopathic 

subjects: 

XI  

"VTT 

I  

-0.2 

I    f\     O 

-0.1 

1   f\    A 

+0.1 

in   Q 

+1.0 
—0  1 

+1.7 
—0  8 

+2.3 
—  1.9 

JvJ.1  

XIV  



-T"U.  o 

-0.4 

-f-U.4 

-0.2 

T"U.  y 
-0.7 

-0^8 

-2^0 

-3.0 

Average  . 

-0.1 

0 

+0.1 

0 

-0.4 

-0.9 

1Dose  C  was  given  in  the  12-hour  experiments. 

innervation  of  the  finger  was  analogous  to  its  action  on  the  reflexes. 
With  a  depressed  initial  performance  after  alcohol  the  relative  fatigue 
in  subsequent  performances  is  lessened.  The  summary  of  average  dif- 
ferences confirms  this  general  relationship. 

Summaries  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  reciprocal  innervation  of 
the  finger  are  given  in  tables  32  and  33.     Table  32  is  calculated  from  the 


184 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


averages  and  is  included  here  only  for  comparison  with  the  regular  sum- 
mary from  the  differences,  which  is  given  in  table  33.  In  table  33  we  have 
followed  our  general  custom,  showing  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  aver- 
age differences  on  the  left  and  the  effect  on  percentile  differences  on  the 
right.  From  this  right-hand  half  of  table  33  it  appears  that  the  effect 
of  alcohol  on  the  finger-movements  is  to  increase  the  average  differences 
about  9  per  cent  for  both  doses.  That  is  to  say,  after  alcohol  the  num- 
ber of  reciprocal  innervations  of  the  finger  is  decreased  about  9  per  cent. 
The  only  exception  to  this  rule  after  dose  A  of  alcohol  is  the  case  of 
Subject  X,  who  has  had  considerable  practice  in  playing  the  piano. 
In  his  case  the  total  change  is  less  than  1  per  cent  gain  after  alcohol. 
While  this  is  practically  negligible,  the  exception  to  the  rule  in  this 
case  is  clear.  After  dose  B  the  exception  is  Subject  III.  It  is  of 

TABLE  32. — Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  reciprocal  innervation 
of  the  middle  finger  ax  shoum  by  the  averages. 


Dose  A. 

Dose  B. 

1     2" 

4" 

6" 

2" 

4" 

6" 

Normal  subjects: 

II  +1.1 

+2.4 

+3.5 

-0.1 

-1.9 

-2.8 

III  1+0.6 

+0.7 

+0.7 

+0.3 

-0.1 

-0.7 

IV  

+1.6 

-0.1 

-0.1 

-0.1 

VI  

-1.2 

-2.5 

-3.6 

0 

-1.4 

-2.0 

VII  

-0.6 

-1.4 

-2.5 

-11 

-2.5 

-3.5 

VIII  

-0.5 

0 

+0.8 

IX  

-1.1 

-1.7 

-2.0 

-2.0 

-3.0 

-4.2 

X  

0 

+0.6 

+  1.3 

Average  

-0.2 

-0.3 

0 

-6!e 

-i'.S 

-2.2 

Psychopathic  subjects: 

XI  

0 

+0.2 

+0.1 

XII  

-0.2 

-0.3 

+0.1 

XIV  

-0.3 

0 

-0.5 

Average  

-0.2 

0 

-0.1 

interest  in  this  latter  exception  that  the  subject  began  the  alcohol  day 
with  the  lowest  "normal  of  the  day"  of  all  his  experiments.  Com- 
parison with  his  performance  after  dose  A  makes  it  probable  that  this 
accidentally  low  normal  of  the  day  is  responsible  for  the  apparent 
exception.  It  was  exactly  such  accidental  values  that  our  insistence 
on  group  values  was  designed  to  compensate.  It  is  significant  that 
apart  from  this  exceptional  case,  the  average  depression  of  reciprocal 
innervation  is  greater  with  the  greater  dose  of  alcohol.  Without  the 
negative  case  in  each  group,  the  proportional  change  would  be  more 
symmetrical. 

The  measurements  of  the  psychopathic  group  in  this  test  contrast 
sharply  with  those  of  the  moderate  users.  Of  the  three  psychopathic 
subjects,  only  one,  Subject  XI,  follows  the  rule  of  moderate  users,  the 


MOTOR   COORDINATIONS. 


185 


others,  Subjects  XII  and  XIV,  show  reversed  results.  This  difference 
is  too  clear  to  be  accidental.  Together  with  the  other  peculiarities  of 
this  small  group,  it  points  to  a  probable  class  difference  that  constitutes 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  unsolved  problems  which 
are  suggested  by  our  measurements. 

TABLE  33. — Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  middle  finger 
as  shown  by  the  differences. 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Effect  as  shown  in  average  differences.1 

Effect  as  shown  in  percentile  differences.1 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

Dose  A. 

Dose  B. 

2" 

4" 

6" 

2" 

6" 

2" 

4" 

6" 

4" 

6" 

2" 

4" 

Normal  subjects: 
II  
Ill  
IV  
VI  
VII  
IX  
X  
Average  .... 
12  br.  experiments: 
VI  
IX  
Average  .... 
Psychopathic  sub- 
jects: 
XI  
XII  
XIV  
Average  .... 

+0.4 
+0.5 

+  1.6 
+  1.3 

+1.9 
+1.8 
+2.3 
+4.4 
+4.3 
+7.1 
-0.4 
+3.1 

3+0.15 

+2.2 
-2.8 
-2.3 
-1.0 

+1.2 
-0.6 
0 
+0.1 
+1.9 
+1.8 

+2.6 
-0.8 
+0.2 
+0.5 
+3.3 
+4.4 

+3.8 

3:! 

+1.6 
+4.1 
+9.0 

+  3.1 
+  3.8 

+"9!o 
+14.6 
+  4.1 
+  3.8 
+  6.4 

3+  2.2 

3  +29.3 
3  +15.7 

+  9.5 
-  3.7 

+  6.2 
+  5.1 

+11.2 
+10.1 
+14.5 
+  4.5 
+  8.6 

3-  0.7 
3  +  14.2 
3+  6.7 

+  7.3 
-  5.7 

+  5.1 
+  4.8 
+  6.4 
+15.2 
+11.4 
+20.4 
-  0.9 
+  8.9 

3+  0.6 

+  6.1 
-  9.1 

+  9.4 

-  4.7 

+  1.0 

+14.7 
+14.6 

+"7^0 

+10.5 
-  3.3 

+  0.8 
+  2.6 
+12.9 

+18.2 

+  6^9 

+10.4 
-  5.8 
+  6.0 
+  5.6 
+10.9 
+25.6 

+  8.8 

+0.9 
+1.9 
+0.5 
+0.6 
+0.8 

3  +0.2 
3  +3.4 
3+1.8 

+1.2 
-0.4 
-0.4 
+0.1 

+2.2 
+2.6 
+3.5 
+1.4 
+2.1 

3-0.13 
3  +3.4 
3  +1.6 

+1.8 
-1.2 
-1.8 
-0.4 

+0.7 

+1.7 

+3.1 

-  3.01-  6.7 
+  09       17 

-  5.8 
4  3 

Effect  on  the  average  difference  equals  (av.  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc.,  alcohol)  minus  (av.  1-2,  1-3,  1-4, 
etc.,  normal). 

2Effect  on  the  percentile  difference  equals  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  average  difference  divided  by  the 
average  of  the  corresponding  normals  of  the  day. 

*Dose  C  was  given  in  the  12-hour  experiments. 

The  net  result  of  this  phase  of  our  experimentation  is  that  the 
velocity  of  the  eye-movements  and  the  speed  of  reciprocal  innervation 
of  the  finger  are  both  regularly  decreased  by  alcohol.  As  far  as  these 
processes  are  an  indication  of  the  adequacy  of  motor  coordination,  the 
effect  of  alcohol  on  motor  coordination  is  depressive.  The  similarity 
of  the  average  percentile  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  two  processes,  while 
the  processes  themselves  represent  very  different  neural  centers,  makes 
it  probable  that  our  experimental  results  indicate  a  widespread  impair- 
ment of  motor  coordination  as  a  result  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PULSE-RATE,  DURING  MENTAL  AND 
PHYSICAL  WORK  EXPERIMENTS. 

Reports  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  circulation  are  among  the 
earliest  and  most  common  data  on  the  physiology  and  pharmacology 
of  alcohol.  But,  notwithstanding  an  enormous  amount  of  experimental 
material,  there  is  no  commonly  accepted  generalization.  The  discrep- 
ancies and  contradictions  of  the  earlier  investigations  appear  in  the 
more  recent.  Alcohol  has  been  found  (1)  to  increase  the  pulse-rate. 
(2)  to  decrease  it,  (3)  to  do  neither,  and  (4)  to  do  both.  Some  illustra- 
tive observations  are  given  on  page  187. 

Summaries  which  attempt  to  generalize  at  all  concerning  the  effect  of 
alcohol  on  pulse  naturally  reflect  the  experimental  discrepancies.  Thus 
I  Bander  Brunton1  states  that  alcohol  in  moderate  doses  increases  the 
pulse-rate.  Horseley  and  Sturge2  hold  that  alcohol  decreases  the 
pulse-rate.  Notnagel  and  Rossbach,3  and  Rosenfeld,4  state  that  it 
has  no  significant  effect,  while  Cushny6  accepts  the  view  that  it  both 
increases  and  decreases  the  pulse,  according  to  circumstances,  but  has 
no  effect  on  normal  quiet  subjects.  Meyer  and  Gottlieb,6  while  classi- 
fying alcohol  among  the  heart-accelerating  medicaments,  appear  to 
hold  that  its  action  has  not  been  proved  for  normal  human  subjects. 
Indeed,  the  more  recent  general  summaries  show  a  conspicuous  ten- 
dency to  regard  the  effect  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  on  the  human 
pulse  as  more  or  less  problematic.  This  uncertainty  seems  to  be  widely 
reflected  in  medical  practice. 

These  discrepancies  in  the  traditional  data  make  it  all  the  more 
necessary  to  reinvestigate  the  pulse-changes  of  human  subjects  after 
the  ingestion  of  alcohol  under  the  largest  possible  number  of  experi- 
mental conditions,  with  modern  recording  instruments,  as  proposed 
under  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  Plan.  Such  an  investigation  of 
the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  circulation  of  man  is  outlined  where  it 
obviously  belongs,  in  the  physiological  program.  In  its  proper  place 

'Brunton,  Therapeutics  of  the  Circulation,  London,  1914.  p.  178. 

'Horeeley  and  Sturge,  Alcohol  and  the  Human  Body,  London,  1907. 

'Notnagel  and  Rossbach,  Handbuch  der  Artxneimittellehre,  Berlin  and  Vienna.  1894. 

4Rosenfeld,  Der  Einfluss  des  Alkohols  auf  den  Organismus,  Wiesbaden.  1901. 

•Cushny,  Pharmacology,  Philadelphia,  1910. 

•Meyer  and  Gottlieb,  Die  cxperimentelle  Phannncolojae.  3d  ed.,  Berlin.  1014. 

186 


PULSE    DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


187 


A  Icohol  was  found  to  increase  pulse-rate  by: 

Parkes  and  Wailowicz,1  1870.  Man; 
moderately  large  doses. 

Dogiel2  (ref.).*  First  rise,  then  fall;  no 
data  cited. 

Fraser,3  1880.  Man;  75  c.c.,  20  per  cent. 

v.  Jaksch,4  1888.  Children,  2  to  3  g. 

Binz,5  1888.  Dog;  5  c.c.;  stomach. 

Swientochowski,6  1902.  Patients;  25  to  100 
c.c.;  50  per  cent. 

Mosso  and  Galeotti,7  1903.  Men;  mod- 
orate. 

John,8  1909.  Men;  moderate. 

A  Icohol  was  found  to  have  no  effect  on  pulse- 


Zimmerberg13  (ref.),  1869.  Various  animals 

60  c.c. ;  Man,  40  per  cent  Al. 
Von  der  Miihll  and  Jaquet,14  1891.  Men, 

30  to  100  c.c. 
Bock,15  1898.  Isolated  rabbit  heart,  255 

c.c. ;  10  per  cent. 
Wendelstadt,16  1899.  Men,  irregular,  5  to 

100  c.c.  (actually  rose  two-thirds  cases). 
Rosenfeld,17  1901.  Dogs,  2  to  29  c.c.  A.  A. 
Kochmann,18  1904-5.  Man;  moderate,  60 

to  80  c.c.,  20  per  cent;  50  c.c.,  30  per  cent. 
Wood  and  Hoyt,19  1905.  Dogs;  various, 

moderate,  irregular. 
Bachem.20  1907.  Rabbits;  0.2  to  1.0  c.c. 
Dixon,21  1907.  Man;  moderate;  dilute. 
Dennig    et    a/.,22    1909.     Fever    patients; 

6  to  40  c.c. 
Woodhead,23  1911.  Man;  moderate. 


Alcohol  was  found  to  decrease  pulse-rate  by: 
v.     Jaksch,4     1888.     Children,     3.2    gr.; 

patients,  75  per  cent  of  cases. 
Gutnikow,9  1892.  Dog;  100  to    250    gr.; 

50  to  70  per  cent. 
Hascovec,10   1900-01.   Dog;  5   c.c.  A.  A., 

25  per  cent  intravenous;  20  c.c.  A.  A., 

33  per  cent;  100  c.c.  A.  A.,  50  per  cent. 

stomach. 
Backmann,11  1906.  Isolated  rabbit  heart, 

0.05  to  0.5  per  cent. 
Di  Cristina  and  Pentimalli,12  1910  (ref.). 


Alcohol   was   found    both    to   increase   and 

decrease  pulse-rate  by: 
Maki24  (ref.),  1884.     Frog;  small  doses. 
Weissenfeld.25     Self;  50  to  70  c.c.  sherry; 

irregular. 

Loeb,26  1905.  Frog  and  cat;  inconstant. 
Dixon,21  1907.  Frog;  first  slow,  then  rapid. 
Brandini,27  1908.  Rabbit  and  dog;  depres- 
sion moderate;  isolated  heart. 
Luzzato,28    1910-11.    Men    (ref.);    20    to 

50  c.c.  Al. ;  individual  differences. 
Miller,2"   1910.   Animal;  transfused;  0.13 

to  0.3   per  cent  stimulated;  over  0.3 

per  cent  depressed. 
Downs,30  1911.  Frog;  external  application 

to  heart;  1  to  2  per  cent  increased  at 

first;  5  per  cent  decreased. 


*Original  not  available. 

JParkes  and  Wailowicz,  Proc.  Royal  Soc.  of  London,  1870,  18,  p.  362;  Parkes,  Proc.  Royal 

Soc.  of  London,  1874, 22,  p.  172. 
2Dogiel,  Fourth  Congress  of  Russian  Naturalists  in  Kasan,  reported  in  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol., 

1874,  8,  p.  604. 

3Fraser,  Alcohol,  its  function  and  place,  Edinburgh,  1880.    (Ref.) 
4v.  Jaksch,  Verhdl.  des  Congresses  fur  innere  Medizin,  Wiesbaden,  1888,  7,  p.  86. 
5Binz,  Verhdl.  des  Congresses  fur  innere  Medizin,  Wiesbaden,  1888,  7,  p.  70. 
'Swientochowski,  Zeitschr.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1902,  46,  p.  284. 
7Mosso  and  Galeotti,  Lab.  Sci.  Int.  du  Mont  Rosa,  1903.     (Published  1904.) 
"John,  Zeitschr.  f.  exp.  Path.  u.  Ther.,  1909,  5,  p.  579. 
»Gutnikow,  Zeitschr.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1892,  21,  p.  168. 
"Hascovec,  Mitteilungen  der  bohmischen  Akademie,  1900-01. 
"Backmann,  Skand.  Archiv  f.  Physiol.,  1906, 18,  p.  323. 
l2Di  Cristina  and  Pentimalli,  Archiv  di  Fisiol.,  1910,  8,  p.  131. 
13Zimmerberg,  Dissertation,  Dorpat,  1869.    (Ref.) 

14Von  der  Muhll  and  Jaquet,  Corresp.-Blatt  f.  schweizer  Aerzte,  1891,  21,  p.  457. 
l&Bock,  Archiv  f.  exp.  Path.  u.  Pharm.,  1898,  41,  p.  158. 
lsWendelstadt,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1899,  76,  p.  223. 

"Rosenfeld,  Der  Einfluss  des  Alkohols  auf  den  Organismus,  Wiesbaden,  1901. 
18Kochmann,  Archiv.  internat.  de  Pharmacod.  et  Therapie,  1904,  13,  p.  329;  Deutsch.  Med. 

Wchnsch.,  Leipsic,  1905,  31,  p.  942. 

"Wood  and  Hoyt,  Mem.  Nat.  Acad.  Sciences  (pub.  1905),  1911,  10,  p.  39. 
"Bachem,  Zentralbl.  f.  innere  Med.,  1907,  28,  p.  849. 
aDixon,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1907,  35,  p.  346. 

^Dennig  et  al.,  Deutsch.  Archiv  f.  klin.  Med.,  1909,  96,  p.  153. 
uWoodhead,  Med.  Press  and  Circ.  London,  N.  S.,  1911, 92,  p.  553. 
"Maki,  Ueber  den  Einfluss  des  Camphers,  Caffeins  und  Alkohols  auf  das  Herz.  Dissertation, 

Strassburg,  1884  (cit). 

^Weissenfeld,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1898,  71,  p.  60. 
26Loeb,  Archiv  f.  exp.  Path.  u.  Pharm.,  1905,  52,  p.  459. 
"Brandini,  Archiv.  Ital.  de  Biol.,  1908,  49,  p.  275. 
"Luzzato,  Archiv.  Ital.  de  Biol.,  1910,  54,  p.  291. 
"Miller,  Journ.  Am.  Med.  Asso.,  1910,  55,  p.  2034. 
"Downs,  Month.  Cycl.  and  M.  Bull.,  1911, 4,  p.  153. 


188          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

it  will  not  be  an  incident  in  any  other  investigation.  With  modern 
techniques  it  will  make  large  demands  on  time  and  equipment.  To 
have  combined  it  with  the  investigation  of  neuro-muscular  processes 
would  have  jeopardized  both.  The  demands  of  the  experimental  pro- 
cedure on  both  subject  and  experimenter  would  regularly  conflict,  since, 
while  complete  mental  and  bodily  relaxation  is  a  necessary  condition 
for  a  pulse  base-line,  the  purpose  of  the  neuro-muscular  experiment  is 
to  introduce  stimuli  to  action. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  main  ends  of  this  investigation 
precluded  a  systematic  study  of  the  pulse,  adequate  simultaneous 
pulse-records  were  believed  to  be  important,  both  for  the  neuro- 
muscular  investigation  itself,  and  as  a  contribution  to  the  systematic 
investigation  of  the  human  pulse.  It  has  been  a  long-established 
custom  of  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  to  take  pulse-rates  during  all 
experiments.  There  is  an  important  theoretical  value  of  regular  pulse- 
records  also  in  psychological  experiments  (Dodge.1)  When  taken 
antecedent  to  the  psychological  experiment,  the  pulse  is  the  best  avail- 
able indicator  of  the  general  physiological  and  psychical  status  of  the 
subject.  During  the  experimental  process,  pulse-change  gives  us  the 
simplest  means  of  estimating  the  general  physiological  changes,  or 
metabolism,  incident  to  the  experiment.  Moreover,  it  is  clear  that, 
while  a  systematic  study  of  pulse  must  be  based  on  the  pulse  of  relaxa- 
tion, no  investigation  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  human  pulse  will 
be  adequate  which  limits  itself  to  relaxed  subjects.  Complete  relaxa- 
tion is  an  artifact  of  the  laboratory.  Theoretically,  it  is  a  limit. 
Practically,  it  is  an  ideal  which  the  actual  condition  of  the  subject  at 
any  given  moment  may  more  or  less  closely  approximate.  Its  main 
relation  to  actual  conditions  of  normal  or  abnormal  life  is  to  furnish 
a  theoretical  base-line  upon  which  actual  conditions  may  be  plotted, 
from  which  the  deviation  of  actual  conditions  may  be  quantitatively 
expressed.  While  any  systematic  investigation  of  pulse  under  alcohol 
must  be  based  on  relaxed  subjects,  it  must  also  include  the  effects  of 
alcohol  under  experimental  variations  from  relaxation.  Such  pulse- 
changes  should  be  correlated  as  closely  as  possible  with  the  records  of 
actual  accomplishment.  It  is  obvious  that  pulse-records  which  are 
taken  simultaneously  with  our  neuro-muscular  measurements  meet 
these  conditions  for  the  particular  experimental  deviation  from  relaxa- 
tion which  they  accompany.  Our  pulse-records,  then,  should  consti- 
tute data  not  only  for  an  interpretation  of  the  neuro-muscular  work, 
but  also  for  a  contribution  to  the  systematic  experimental  study  of  the 
effect  of  alcohol  on  the  autonomic  system  under  experimental  condi- 
tions. They  should  be  regarded  as  a  supplement  to  the  future  system- 
atic investigation  of  pulse,  as  well  as  a  connecting  link  between  the 
latter  and  the  present  investigation. 

'Dodge,  Psychological  Review,  1913,  20,  p.  1. 


PULSE    DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  189 

TECHNIQUES  FOR  RECORDING  THE  PULSE  DURING  PSYCHOLOGICAL 
EXPERIMENTS. 

Three  devices  were  used  for  obtaining  the  pulse-records  during  our 
experiments:  (1)  The  temporal  pulse  was  recorded  by  a  skeleton 
telephone-receiver  in  series  with  the  string  galvanometer.  (2)  During 
the  association  experiments  the  radial  pulse  was  recorded  by  means  of 
a  new  electric  sphygmograph  which  was  devised  to  record  on  a  distant 
kymograph.  The  electric  relay  was  operated  first  by  the  Wiersma 
hand  plethysmograph  and  later  by  a  Tigerstedt  bulb.  (3)  Except  for 
the  association  experiments,  all  our  later  records  were  electrocardio- 
grams from  body  leads  through  condensers. 

TELEPHONE  PULSE-RECORDER. 

The  telephone  pulse-recorder  was  first  described  by  Dodge.1  In 
principle  it  consists  of  a  skeleton  telephone-receiver  attached  to  the 
head,  so  that  the  diaphragm  or  armature  rests  on  the  temporal  artery. 
Vibrations  of  the  armature  in  the  field  of  the  small  permanent  magnet 
of  the  receiver  set  up  minute  electric  currents  in  the  surrounding  high- 
resistance  coils.  These  currents  are  recorded  by  the  aid  of  the  string 
galvanometer.  Difficulties  of  adjustment  and  disturbances  due  to 
sudden  movements  of  the  head  led  to  the  substitution  of  the  electro- 
cardiogram for  the  pulse-recorder  in  all  pulse-records  which  were  taken 
subsequent  to  March  26,  1914. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION  OF  AN  ELECTRICAL  SPHYGMOGRAPH  FOR 
RECORDING  PULSE-RATE  AT  A  DISTANCE. 

In  connection  with  the  experiments  on  association,  it  was  regarded 
as  desirable  to  have  as  complete  records  of  physical  condition  as  was 
practicable.  Among  other  data  it  seemed  desirable,  for  reasons  that 
we  have  already  mentioned,  to  take  continuous  pulse-records  through- 
out the  entire  association  experiments. 

As  the  laboratory  was  equipped  at  the  end  of  our  year's  work,  it 
would  have  been  relatively  simple  to  provide  for  such  continuous  pulse- 
records  by  the  use  of  the  electro-cardiogram  from  body  leads,  our  third 
method.  When  the  association  experiments  were  first  commenced, 
however,  we  were  not  in  a  position  to  take  photographic  records  of  the 
pulse  which  were  longer  than  20  cm.  Moreover,  if  the  individual 
pulse-cycles  were  to  be  given  sufficient  length  on  the  record  to  permit 
accurate  reading,  photographic  records  would  be  an  expensive  tech- 
nique. It  is  doubtful  if  the  advantage  of  the  method  would  have 
warranted  the  additional  expense. 

Ordinary  direct  methods  of  sphygmography  are  available  only  when 
the  subjects  are  situated  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  recording 
apparatus.  In  all  psychological  experiments  such  proximity  to  the 

^odge,  Psychological  Review,  1913,  20,  p.  1. 


190  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

apparatus  is  more  or  less  perilous.  In  association  experiments  it  is 
particularly  inexpedient.  It  became  necessary,  therefore,  to  devise 
some  form  of  pulse-recorder  which  would  act  at  a  distance,  while  still 
permitting  definite  correlation  with  the  other  data  of  the  experiment. 
As  our  solution  of  the  problem  may  be  of  general  use,  we  shall  give  it 
in  some  detail.  The  conditions  seemed  to  indicate  a  device  by  which 
the  mechanical  pulse- wave  should  break  an  electric  contact,  which 
would  in  turn  activate  an  electric  marker.  That  was  the  plan  which 
we  adopted.  The  Wiersma1  hand  sphygmograph  gave  remarkably 
large  pulse-oscillations  and  seemed  consequently  admirably  adapted  to 
our  purpose.  Dr.  Wiersma's  plan  was  to  bind  the  hands  of  the  subject 
around  a  rubber  capsule.  Since  the  bandage  was  rigid,  each  pulsation 
forced  the  air  out  of  the  capsule  to  the  recording  tambour.  Personal 
experience  with  such  a  bincting  showed  that  after  15  minutes  it  might 
become  almost  intolerable.  But  even  if  it  were  quite  comfortable,  it 
would  obviously  be  something  of  an  annoyance  and  a  considerable 
waste  of  time  to  bind  and  unbind  a  subject's  hand  several  times  during 
the  course  of  a  3-hour  experiment.  In  view  of  these  difficulties,  we 
experimented  to  find  some  sort  of  a  clamp  which  would  slip  on  and  off 
the  subject  without  delaying  the  experiments. 

With  the  help  of  Dr.  Carl  Tigerstedt,  at  that  time  Research  Associate 
of  the  Nutrition  Laboratory,  we  tried  various  devices  of  plaster  of 
Paris  and  other  plastic  forms.  But  an  even  simpler  device  composed 
of  reinforced  felt  cushions  and  a  light  "C"  clamp  proved  equally  satis- 
factory. As  a  transmitting  capsule  we  used  about  12  cm.  of  soft-rubber 
tubing  about  2.5  cm.  in  diameter,  which  was  closed  at  both  ends  with 
rubber  stoppers  and  connected  to  a  Marey  tambour  by  rubber  tubing. 
In  use,  this  transmitting  capsule  was  grasped  firmly  in  the  subject's 
left  hand,  which  was  then  inserted  in  the  clamp  between  the  felt 
cushions,  and  relaxed.  Pulse-waves  of  large  amplitude  may  thus  be 
transmitted  to  the  tambour  recorder.  Some  subjects  regularly  give 
much  larger  oscillations  than  others.  With  a  recording  lever  of  10  cm., 
Dr.  Tigerstedt  gave  curves  with  an  amplitude  of  more  than  2  cm.; 
5  to  6  mm.  is  more  common  and  is  satisfactory.  An  amplitude  of  less 
than  4  mm.  is  sufficient  only  if  the  transmitting  device  is  carefully 
adjusted.- 

The  first  device  by  which  these  pulse-waves  operated  to  make  and 
break  the  transmitting  electric  circuit  was  a  platinum  contact  between 
the  tambour  lever  and  a  horizontal  rest  which  the  lever  just  touched 
at  the  lowest  point  of  each  oscillation.  But  when  the  moving  parts 
were  sufficiently  delicate  so  as  not  greatly  to  diminish  the  amplitude 

'Thanks  to  the  kindness  of  Professor  Wiersma,  one  of  us  was  shown  the  working  of  his  ingenious 
hand  sphygmograph  at  Groningen.  At  the  time  of  our  going  to  press  we  are  acquainted  only 
with  the  brief  description  of  this  apparatus  with  accompanying  curves  given  in  the  Program  of 
the  Communications  and  Demonstrations  of  the  Ninth  International  Congress  of  Physiologists  at 
Groningen.  1913. 


PULSE    DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  191 

of  the  pulse-curve  by  their  mass,  these  contacts  proved  to  be  unsafe. 
Occasionally  no  proper  contacts  were  made.  Occasionally  the  platinum 
points  stuck  and  failed  to  break.  To  avoid  these  difficulties  we  used 
a  mercury  cup  from  which  each  systole  raised  the  end  of  a  fine  platinum 
wire  that  was  attached  to  the  end  of  the  tambour  lever.  This  lever, 
an  aluminum  arm  about  10  cm.  long,  was  counterbalanced  by  a  bit 
of  wax,  so  as  to  produce  the  greatest  amplitude  of  movement. 

When  properly  adjusted  this  apparatus  functioned  fairly  well  for 
normal  subjects.  Operated  chiefly  by  the  capillary  pulse,  however, 
it  works  for  some  subjects  better  than  for  others,  and  at  some  times 
better  than  at  others.  On  the  whole  we  found  it  an  exacting  instru- 
ment. In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  carefully  adjusted  to  each  indi- 
vidual subject,  and  the  optimum  relative  position  of  the  clamp,  hand,  and 
transmitting  capsule  must  be  experimentally  determined.  In  general 
we  found  it  better  to  leave  the  thumb  free,  so  that  only  the  fingers  and 
the  palm  of  the  hand  were  in  contact  with  the  capsule.  The  pressure  of 
the  clamp  that  is  necessary  to  get  satisfactory  results  also  varies  with 
the  individual  and  his  blood-pressure.  The  best  conditions  must  be 
found  by  trial.  In  cold  weather  the  hand  must  first  be  warmed  to  secure 
adequate  capillary  circulation.  A  third  adjustment  was  the  height 
of  the  mercury  cup.  Our  experience  leads  us  to  say  that  the  optimum 
height  of  the  cup,  when  the  systolic  wave  breaks  the  contact,  is  where 
the  contact  is  just  broken  when  the  whole  system  is  in  equilibrium. 
If  the  device  is  so  arranged  that  the  systolic  wave  shall  make  the 
contact,  the  surface  of  the  mercury  should  be  about  2  mm.  below  the 
point  of  equilibrium.  This  latter  arrangement  has  some  practical 
advantages,  but  it  is  theoretically  less  satisfactory  than  the  former  on 
account  of  the  normal  fluctuation  in  the  height  of  the  systolic  wave  and 
the  consequent  differences  in  the  relative  position  of  the  moment  of 
contact.  In  the  final  form  of  this  device  we  used  only  one  mercury 
cup,  carrying  the  current  through  the  axis  of  the  recorder.  We  tried 
using  two  mercury  cups,  connecting  them  with  a  transverse  platinum 
wire  at  the  end  of  the  recorder.  That  proved  to  be  inexpedient  because 
of  the  relatively  large,  though  intrinsically  small,  surface-tension 
between  the  mercury  and  the  platinum  wire.  Even  with  one  cup,  if 
the  mercury  is  a  little  too  high,  the  surface  tension  is  sufficient  to  keep 
the  platinum  wire  in  contact,  with  consequent  failure  to  record  the 
pulse.  A  fourth  adjustment  was  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  the 
plethysmographic  effects,  by  which  the  pointer  either  rises  above  the 
mercury  with  increasing  volume  of  the  hand  and  fails  to  return  to  its 
surface  in  the  diastolic  phase  of  the  pulse-wave,  or  the  pointer  sinks 
below  the  level  of  the  mercury  with  decreasing  volume  of  the  hand  and 
fails  to  rise  above  its  surface  in  systole.  To  avoid  these  plethysmo- 
graphic changes  we  introduced  two  systematic  leaks,  as  follows: 
(1)  the  tambour  membrane  was  pricked  by  a  pin  point  so  as  not  to  be 


192  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

absolutely  tight;  (2)  in  addition  we  used  a  spring  clamp,  operated 
from  the  floor  below  by  a  cord,  to  open  and  to  close  a  T  tube  which 
connected  the  system  with  the  free  air.  Since  this  opening  was  large, 
an  immediate  restitution  of  the  equilibrium  could  be  obtained  whenever 
the  recorder  showed  plethysmograph  effects.  If  reasonable  care  was 
used  in  these  various  adjustments,  the  device  proved  usable. 

But  recurring  plethysmographic  effects  finally  led  us  to  abandon  this 
application  of  the  Wiersma  instrument.  On  the  advice  of  Dr.  Carl 
Tigerstedt  we  substituted  in  its  place  a  soft-rubber  bulb,  strapped  as 
flat  as  possible  over  the  radial  artery.  The  device  was  first  used  in 
Helsingfors  by  Professor  Robert  Tigerstedt;1  but,  as  far  as  we  can 
learn,  it  has  never  been  published  in  accessible  form.  The  Tigerstedt 
method  properly  requires  a  flat,  pear-shaped  bulb,  but  no  such  bulb 
could  be  found  commercially  in  this  country.  Round  bulbs  tend  to 
become  concave  when  flattened  against  the  wrist,  making  the  areas 
of  contact  uncertain  in  size  and  position.  To  overcome  this  difficulty, 
we  used  the  device  of  folding  a  round  bulb  on  itself.  In  effect,  this 
makes  a  double  flat  bulb  with  a  dead  space  where  the  fold  is  open  to 
the  air;  but  if  the  soft  bulb  is  pressed  almost  flat  against  the  wrist  by 
a  suitable  bandage,  the  effect  of  this  dead  space  is  practically  elimi- 
nated. The  resulting  movements  of  the  marker  proved  to  be  ample 
in  all  cases,  and  not  seriously  affected  either  by  the  plethysmographic 
changes  or  by  cold.  For  rapid  attachment  of  the  bulb  to  the  wrist,  we 
used  an  athlete's  leather  wristband.  In  this  final  form  the  device  gave 
positive  results,  and  caused  relatively  little  trouble. 

The  pulse-curve  was  correlated  with  the  giving  of  the  stimulus,  as 
well  as  with  the  reaction  of  the  subject,  by  means  of  a  stimulus  and 
reaction  curve,  which  was  superposed  on  the  pulse-record.  The 
arrangement  for  securing  such  correlation  was  as  follows:  We  used  a 
screw-fed  Blix-Sandstrom  kymograph,  running  at  the  rate  of  50  mm. 
per  second,  a  Dodge  duplex  recorder,  and  the  electrical  sphygmograph 
as  above  described.  By  means  of  an  offset  on  the  shaft,  the  kymo- 
graph broke  an  electric  current  with  every  revolution,  i.e.,  every  10". 
That  break  operated  a  signal-lamp  on  the  desk  of  the  experimenter  in 
the  balcony.  When  the  signal-lamp  went  out,  the  experimenter  gave 
the  stimulus  word  and  at  the  same  time  pressed  a  key  through  which 
the  current  passed  to  one  side  of  the  duplex  recorder.  This  gave  a 
stimulus  signal  superposed  on  the  continuous  sphymographic  record. 
Immediately,  when  the  subject  reacted,  the  operator  released  the  key 
and  thus  broke  the  reaction-curve  circuit,  and  registered  the  reaction 
on  the  same  continuous  line  with  an  error  equal  to  his  personal  equation. 
The  words  were  given  in  groups  of  5,  so  that  the  properly  lettered  and 
numbered  kymographic  records  can  be  immediately  correlated  with  the 
corresponding  reaction  experiments.  Between  each  group  of  5,  a  blank 

'Tigerstedt,  Hygiea  Festband,  1908. 


PULSE   DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  193 

line  was  run  on  the  kymograph,  in  which  there  were  neither  sphygmo- 
graphic  records  nor  reaction  records.  Each  group  of  50  reaction 
experiments  was  interrupted  in  the  middle  for  readjusting  the  drum. 
The  full  length  of  the  drum  just  sufficed  to  give  50  reaction  lines,  plus 
the  blank  lines  and  a  few  accidental  blanks  that  occurred  in  the  course 
of  the  series. 

The  reading  of  these  records  was  a  painstaking  and  a  time-consuming 
process,  but  presented  no  special  difficulties.  A  small  probable  error 
is  involved  in  each  pulse-cycle  record.  It  depends  on  the  fact  that  the 
pointer  will  leave  the  mercury  at  some  point  of  the  systolic  rise.  It 
may  be  near  the  beginning  or  it  may  be  near  the  end.  However,  since 
the  duration  of  the  systolic  rise  is  relatively  short  (about  0.08"),  and 
since  extreme  positions  give  no  break,  the  probable  error  of  any  one 
record  will  not  be  over  0.02. "  In  an  evenly  running  series  it  is  much 
less.  On  account  of  this  error  it  seemed  inexpedient  to  read  the  curves 
closer  than  0.01 . "  For  most  purposes  of  correlation  this  is  close  enough. 

The  records  are  often  complicated  by  movements  of  the  recorder 
incident  to  the  dicrotic  and  the  post-dicrotic  waves,  which  may  give 
two  or  three  breaks  for  each  pulse-wave.  These  breaks,  however,  are 
usually  of  regularly  decreasing  lengths,  and  seldom  interfere  with  the 
reading  of  the  record.  Gross  body-movements,  however,  produce 
serious  disturbances  in  the  curve,  which  render  a  record  illegible  as  long 
as  they  persist.  Such  irregularities  are  not  without  their  advantage, 
since  they  indicate  the  presence  of  body-movements  and  prevent  a 
misinterpretation  of  physically  conditioned  pulse-changes. 

ELECTRO-CARDIOGRAMS  FROM  BODY  LEADS  THROUGH  CONDENSERS. 
The  arrangement  is  as  follows :  Instead  of  taking  electro-cardiograms 
from  any  of  the  well-known  Einthoven  or  Waller  leads,  which  require  a 
relatively  complete  relaxation  of  the  subject  and  prevent  any  other  use 
of  the  limbs,  the  method  we  employed  attaches  the  electrodes  to  the 
body,  on  either  side,  directly  under  the  armpit.  For  registration  of  the 
duration  of  the  pulse,  this  device  has  certain  advantages  over  all  other 
forms  of  recorders:  (1)  In  general,  the  electro-cardiogram  has  ideal 
configuration  for  accurate  measurements.  The  shape  of  the  curves  is 
relatively  constant,  and  the  sharp  first  systolic  spike  (Einthoven's  R 
spike)  is  peculiarly  clear-cut.  (2)  Use  of  the  body  leads  gives  electro- 
cardiograms which  can  not  be  used  diagnostically  because  of  the 
uncertainty  of  the  position  and  contact  of  the  electrodes.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  leave  the  limbs  free  for  any  sort  of  concurrent  activity. 
(3)  Situated  directly  over  relatively  small  trunk-muscles,  even  violent 
activity  need  not  interfere  with  the  records.  This  is  a  unique  advan- 
tage of  the  body  leads.  As  elaborated  in  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  by 
the  assistance  of  Professor  H.  M.  Smith  and  Mr.  K.  H.  Brown,  the 
device  gave  excellent  records  of  the  pulse  of  a  man  walking  on  a  tread- 
mill for  hours  at  a  time. 


194          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

For  satisfactory  operation  the  following  precautions  and  adjustments 
are  necessary:  (1)  The  galvanometer  must  be  connected  in  series  with 
from  6  to  1 2  condensers  of  2  microfarads  each.  These  serve  to  eliminate 
or  enormously  reduce  body-currents  and  polarization  phenomena. 
(2)  The  electrodes  should  be  light,  flexible,  moist,  and  evenly  pressed 
against  the  skin  by  some  elastic  device  that  takes  up  respiration- 
movements.  We  found  it  satisfactory  to  cover  the  surface  of  thin 
metal  plates,  about  10  cm.  in  diameter,  with  blotting-paper  which  was 
saturated  with  nonnal  salt  solution.  These  electrodes  were  mounted 
on  a  cork  and  inserted  under  the  clothing.  They  could  be  held  in  place 
by  a  thumb-tack,  pressed  through  the  clothing  and  into  the  cork.  A 
wide  elastic  band  around  the  body,  over  the  electrodes,  kept  the  con- 
tact sufficiently  constant  when  the  band  was  just  tight  enough  to  stay 
in  place. 

EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PULSE-RATE  DURING  ASSOCIATION 
EXPERIMENTS. 

The  pulse-records  during  the  association  experiments  were  made  by 
the  electric  recording  device  as  described  above  in  method  II.  They 
appeared  in  the  kymograph  record  on  a  continuous  spiral  base-line 
which  represented  a  total  experimental  period  of  about  12  minutes. 
Since  the  cylinder  of  the  kymograph  had  a  peripheral  velocity  of  50  mm. 
per  second,  each  pulse-cycle  was  from  30  to  60  mm.  long  on  the  record, 
and  was  read  with  an  average  error  of  0.005."  Each  12-minute  record 
represents  an  association  series  of  50  words.  The  actual  duration  of 
each  series  was  usually  longer  than  12  minutes.  There  was  always  a 
delay  of  several  seconds  after  the  first  25  records  to  readjust  the  drum. 
Occasional  delays  occurred  for  taking  additional  data  by  Wells  and  for 
instrumental  adjustments.  During  these  delays  the  forward  pro- 
gression of  the  drum  was  stopped  and  the  spiral  record  was  thus 
temporarily  modified  to  a  circle.  Six  sets  of  these  records  were  made 
in  the  course  of  a  3-hour  experimental  session.  The  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  association  experiment,  as  well  as  the  relative  position  of 
subject  and  experimenter,  may  be  seen  from  figure  21,  opposite  page  101. 
On  the  table,  at  the  subject's  left  hand,  this  figure  also  shows  the  electric 
pulse-transmitter,  which  was  connected  with  the  Tigerstedt  bulb  on 
the  wrist  of  the  subject.  A  similar  transmitter,  shown  on  the  stand 
at  the  right,  was  used  for  respiration-waves. 

A  part  of  a  typical  kymographic  record  of  the  association  experiments 
is  shown  in  figure  30.  The  entire  detached  record-sheet  would  be 
50  cm.  long  and  contain  1  line  for  each  of  the  50  associations  which 
constituted  an  experimental  series.  For  reproduction  we  have  chosen 
that  section  of  the  record  which  shows  the  reaction-time  of  the  associ- 
ation experiments.  If  one  reads  the  record  from  left  to  right,  the 
small,  rhythmically  recurring  plateaus  on  each  line  are  pulse-records. 


PULSE    DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  195 


I 


196          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

The  first  rise  in  each  group  of  these  plateaus  corresponds  with  the 
systolic  wave.  The  subsequent  rises  correspond  with  the  dicrotic  and 
(occasionally)  the  post-dicrotic  waves.  The  highest  plateau  on  the 
line,  about  3  cm.  from  the  left  of  the  record,  indicates  the  duration  of 
the  reaction.  The  left-hand  beginning  of  this  plateau  indicates  the 
moment  at  which  the  experimenter  simultaneously  pressed  a  signal-key 
and  spoke  the  stimulus  word.  The  end  of  the  plateau  shows  the  moment 
at  which  he  released  the  signal-key  as  the  subject  reacted.  Faint  dots 
in  rows  about  3  cm.  long,  one  row  above  the  other,  constitute  a  time- 
record  from  the  pendulum  of  an  accurately  running  clock.  They  are 
2"  apart,  and  serve  to  control  the  kymograph  rather  than  as  a  basis  of 
measurement.  The  kymograph  is  regarded  as  running  satisfactorily 
if  the  variation  would  not  affect  any  unit  of  measurement.  The  broken 
straight  lines  which  appear  between  the  pulse-curves  are  respiration 
records.  They  were  transmitted  by  the  same  sort  of  transmitting  device 
that  was  used  for  the  pulse.  Contact  of  the  marker  with  the  records 
occurred  during  inspiration. 

The  complete  association-pulse  data  of  one  experimental  period  for 
one  subject  (Subject  VII),  together  with  his  association  reactions,  are 
given  in  table  34.  It  seemed  desirable  to  give  the  complete  data  of 
one  period  for  some  subject  to  show  the  actual  variations  in  the  pulse, 
and  to  illustrate  the  process  of  elaboration.  The  data  for  Subject  VII 
were  chosen  because  his  experimental  pulse-changes  were  the  largest  of 
the  regular  group  of  subjects.  The  extreme  left-hand  column  in  table 
34  shows  the  groups  in  which  the  words  were  given.  The  second 
column  contains  the  reaction- time  of  each  of  the  50  asssociations  of  one 
period.  The  other  three  columns  contain  the  duration  of  each  pulse- 
cycle  in  the  corresponding  association  experiment,  arranged  according 
to  its  place  in  the  pre-stimulation,  stimulus  to  reaction,  and  post- 
reaction  phase  of  each  experiment.  Since  the  association  experiments 
began  at  a  similar  part  of  each  corresponding  complete  revolution  of 
the  kymograph  drum,  each  line  of  the  pulse-record,  after  it  is  detached 
from  the  drum,  is  naturally  divided  into  these  three  periods,  of  which 
the  most  important  determinants  are  the  moment  of  stimulation  and 
the  moment  of  reaction.  Pulse-cycles  which  preceded  the  movement  of 
stimulation  are  entered  in  the  "Pre-stimulation "  column.  Pulse-cycles 
which  lay  chiefly  between  the  moment  of  stimulation  and  the  moment 
of  reaction  are  entered  hi  the  "Stimulus  to  reaction"  column,  while 
those  pulse-cycles  which  occurred  immediately  after  the  reaction  are 
entered  in  the  "Post-reaction"  column. 

The  dividing-line  between  the  post-reaction  pulse-cycles  of  one 
association  and  the  pre-reaction  pulse-cycles  of  the  next  association  is 
quite  arbitrary.  Obviously  there  is  no  experimental  break  between 
them.  An  apparent  break  is  produced  when  the  record  is  cut  to  be 
removed  from  the  drum.  While  this  break  is  really  artificial,  it  occurs 


PULSE   DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


197 


TABLE  34.— Association  pulse  data— Subject  VII.     (Dec.  10,  1913,  Series  II,  4h  5V*  p.  m.) 
[Time  units  are  hundredths  of  a  second.] 


1 

3 

s 

i  * 

Pre-stimulation  pulse-cycles. 

Stimulus  to  reaction- 
cycles. 

Post-reaction  pulse-cycles. 

1 

145 

76   72   70    70    70 

74   74   

73   74   75   75   74  72 

2 

182 

74  74  70   64   66    64    64 

64   63   

64   64   68   70   78  76  

3 

194 

73  76   74   74    73    68 

65   60   

64   62   62   68   76  79  

4 

1  84 

77  78   78   80    80    76 

72   68   

64   62   69   82   90  

5 

156 

84  86   87   86    85    80 

77   73 

70   64   70   73   

| 

166 

77   78   77    78    76 

75   74   71  

69   67   70   72   77  .. 

214 

73  77   77   78    79    75 

74   74   70  

64   66   69   77   84  

n 

180 

85   82   80    80    78 

77   73   72  

69   69   71   75   78  

4 

254 

78   77   79    79    78 

76   71   70  68  .... 

64   68   64   83   

B 

162 

.  .  84  82   82   82    79    80 

77   73   

72   71   71   73   75  

I 

164 

71  73   72   74    72    74 

75   71   

74   72   69   69   67  . 

2 

186 

66  69   72   76    75    72 

76   74   69  

67   66   67   64   63  

3 

226 

.  .  64  66   68   70    75    72 

70   69   66  

64   65   68   69   76  

4 

239 

82   83   84    82    79 

78   74   71  

64   62   67   75   

ft 

240 

!  !  84  85   85   84    82    79 

78   73   71  

66   66   68   74   

1 

282 

73  76   78   78    73    77 

78   77   72  71  .... 

68   68   69   72   

2 

238 

74  71  70   73   75    78    78 

76   72   68  

63   64   64   69   

182 

79   82   82    80    84 

83   80   

75   68   70   70   67  70  

4 

182 

68   69   64    68    69 

67  *65   

62   65   66   68   72  76  

B 

320 

....  75   74   78    78    78 

78   76   73  68  64  .. 

64   67   74   

1 

326 

77   77   75    79    78 

80   77   73  70  .... 

64   63   67   65   

2 

282 

.  86  90   88   88    84    83 

79   75   72  

69   66   68   74   

:{ 

158 

82   82   82    82    81 

80   75   

70   68   64   73   86  88  

4 

208 

...   92   90    89    88 

84   81   75  

72   68   69   77   82  

B 

184 

...  86   86   87    86    86 

85   77   

74   70   70   73   .... 

1 

338 

64  64   66   67    72    78 

84   74   70  69  .... 

68   69   74   76   

2 

180 

76  76  76   75   74    74    73 

73   70   

70   66   68   77   88  

3 

286 

....  89   89   87    86    84 

83   75   72  70  .... 

67   68   74   78   

4 

393 

83   82   81    79    80 

79   78   74  

72   70   69   72   76  

B 

274 

....  78   80   82    78    78 

77   74   72  70  .... 

64   66   72   79 

210 

78   78   78    80    79 

75  J63   

(*)   (*)   (*)   O   

2 

212 

...   84   84    84    84 

84   79   76  

73   73   74   76   

15 

4 

317 
200 

..  78  78   79   80    82    80 
.  78  82   84   84    84    82 

80   76   74  68  .... 
82   76   

62   64   64   
73   69   67   72   79  .... 

179 

....  81   81   79    78    78 

79   73   

72   67   64   

1 

168 

78    78    78 

78   76   

74   71   72   67   70  62  68  69  73 

2 

232 

77   76   72    72    73 

73   73   65  71  .... 

66   64   64   70   

211 

..  85   88   86    83    81 

81   74   74  

72   71   74   78   81  

4 
5 

256 
169 

83   82    82    80 
....  80   81   79    78    77 

78   78   73  72  .... 
78   74   71  .. 

68   64   66   69   74  
67   66   70   72   77  

1 

206 

72  72   71   70    69    70 

74   71   68  

67   67   70   66   65  

2 

385 

.  68  68   70   69    70    70 

74   75   70  65  64  64 

65   70   76   

8 

4 
5 

318 
252 
218 

....  82   83   83    81    77 
.  .  73  74   72   71    69    63 
86   90    91    90 

75   74   68  69  .... 
65   87   61  58  .... 
90   84   80  

66   66   69   70 

60   59   58   61   67  
75   72   75   80   

6 

214 

....  91   90   88    88    88 

86   80   76  

72   68   79   

oos 

82    78    77 

78  »77   

74   74   78   79   83  83  

2 
3 

4 

mK 
254 
212 
172 

\  .  84  82   80   79    78    77 
...  85   86   86    84    82 
88   88    90    88 

78   75   76  
80   78   74  
86   85   79  

70   70   73   80   
72   68   69   76   82  
78   76   76   77   

Av 

225 

78.4  79.3  79.16  78.76  78.* 

77.4  74.4  

68.4  67.4  69.6  73.0  

1  Average  of  two. 


198  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

at  approximately  the  same  point  in  all  records,  and  consequently 
permits  comparison  of  approximately  the  same  number  of  pre-stimu- 
la i  i<  ii i  pulses.  The  main  purpose  of  the  present  statistical  arrangement 
of  the  data  is  to  isolate  the  post-stimulation  pulse-change.  On  this 
account,  the  arbitrary  break  between  the  post-reaction  pulse  of  one 
experiment  and  the  pre-stimulation  pulse  of  the  next  is  without  signifi- 
cance. Since  all  the  pulse-waves  were  read,  the  data  are  capable  of  any 
other  arrangement  that  statistical  interests  might  demand. 

The  theory  of  the  statistical  elaboration  of  the  pulse  data  by  which  we 
hoped  to  realize  the  correlation  between  the  different  phases  of  the 
experimental  process  and  the  pulse-rate  probably  needs  some  expla- 
nation. An  examination  of  the  duration  of  successive  pulse-cycles,  as 
given  in  table  34,  will  show  that,  except  by  accident,  no  two  successive 
pulse-cycles  take  equal  times.  This  corresponds  with  the  well-known 
physiological  laws  of  the  extreme  susceptibility  of  the  pulse  to  waves 
of  nervous  excitement.  The  pulse  of  relaxed  subjects  is  accelerated  by 
the  slightest  physical  or  mental  activity.  Even  without  conscious 
activity,  as,  for  instance,  in  sleep,  it  is  yet  complicated  by  a  considerable 
group  of  rhythmic  and  arrhythmic  physiological  processes.  In  normal 
life  there  are  short  rhythms,  corresponding  to  respiration  and  the 
Traube-Hering  waves.  There  are  longer  rhythms  corresponding  to  the 
ingestion  and  digestion  of  food,  to  work  and  relaxation,  to  the  sequence 
of  day  and  night,  etc.  A  constant  base-line  with  clear-cut  experimental 
deviations  does  not  exist  in  practice.  Experimental  deviations  from 
the  normal,  if  they  occur  at  all,  will  be  superposed  on  a  complex  of  the 
rhythmic  and  the  arrhythmic  changes  to  which  the  pulse  is  normally 
liable.  The  obvious  problem  in  any  statistical  treatment  of  the  pulse 
data  for  experimental  purposes  is  to  disentangle  the  significant  experi- 
mental changes  from  the  various  rhythms. 

Even  the  most  common  use  of  pulse  data  is  not  free  from  the  neces- 
sity for  similar  statistical  treatment.  In  the  so-called  pulse-rate  one 
may  not  regard  as  significant  the  measure  of  any  individual  pulse-cycle. 
However  accurate  such  a  measurement  might  be,  it  would  be  meaning- 
less unless  it  were  known  in  what  phase  of  the  various  rhythms  it 
occurred.  At  once  a  simple  and  more  accurate  measure  of  the  pulse- 
rate  is  to  average  such  a  large  number  of  pulsations  that  it  is  safe  to 
assume  that  the  lesser  rhythms  have  run  their  course  a  number  of 
times.%  Under  such  precautions,  the  " pulse-rate"  of  relaxed  subjects 
will  be  relatively  constant,  not  because  the  pulse-cycles  do  not  vary, 
but  because  their  variations  in  successive  periods  tend  to  counter- 
balance each  other.  Just  how  long  a  period  is  necessary  for  such 
measurements  is  not  a  matter  of  universal  agreement.  Common  prac- 
tice finds  60"  a  convenient  and  satisfactory  unit.  In  using  such  a 
unit,  one  assumes  that  in  60  successive  pulse-cycles  (if  60  happens  to  be 
the  pulse-rate)  the  various  lesser  rhythms  have  become  statistically 
eliminated  by  counterbalancing  one  another. 


PULSE   DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  199 

Our  attempt  to  measure  the  effect  of  the  association  experiment  on 
the  pulse-rate  rests  on  a  similar  theoretical  basis.  If  the  pulse  data 
are  arranged  according  to  their  experimental  incidence  it  may  be 
assumed  in  this  case,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pulse-rate,  that  in  a  sufficient 
number  of  instances  the  non-experimental  rhythms  and  the  accidental 
variations  will  tend  to  balance  and  leave  only  the  significant  experi- 
mental change.  In  other  words,  in  the  case  of  the  pulse,  as  in  our 
general  statistical  procedure,  we  postulate  that  chance  variations  can 
not  obscure  any  systematic  change  in  the  measurement  of  a  process 
if  the  number  of  cases  be  sufficiently  large.  In  the  measurement  of 
the  pulse-cycles  during  association,  the  non-experimental  rhythms  are 
treated  as  chance  variations.  Significant  variations  would  be  such  as 
correlate  with  the  reaction  process.  A  comparison  of  the  average  of 
all  the  pulse-cycles  which  occur  just  after  the  moment  of  stimulation  and 
the  average  of  all  the  pulse-cycles  which  occur  just  before  that  moment 
should  give  the  pulse  correlate  of  the  effect  of  stimulation.  While  this 
theory  of  pulse  elaboration  is  believed  to  be  sound,  it  may  well  be 
questioned  if  50  cases  are  sufficient  for  the  non-experimental  rhythms 
to  be  eliminated.  Our  only  answer  to  that  objection  is  that  we  have  no 
means  of  knowing.  Fifty  cases  is,  however,  the  best  available  unit  in 
our  experiments,  and  it  is  not  seriously  different  from  a  widely  used 
physiological  standard,  viz,  of  pulse-rate  per  minute. 

The  experimental  pulse-changes  in  association  tests  for  Subject  VII, 
elaborated  according  to  the  foregoing  theory,  are  summarized  in  table 
35.  The  first  column  shows  the  kind  of  experiment  and  the  number  of 
the  word  series.  The  average  values  of  the  pulse  cycles  are  entered  in 
the  appropriate  columns  under  pre-stimulation  pulse-cycles,  stimulation 
to  reaction,  and  post-stimulation  pulse-cycles,  corresponding  to  the 
arrangement  of  table  34.  Thus  the  right-hand  column  under  pre-stim- 
ulation pulse-cycles  shows  the  average  duration  of  the  pulse-cycles  just 
before  the  stimulus  words  were  given  for  each  period  of  the  four  experi- 
mental days.  An  average  pulse-rate  for  each  experimental  period  is 
shown  in  the  extreme  right-hand  column. 

An  examination  of  table  35  shows  that  in  each  normal  experimental 
session  the  average  length  of  the  pulse-cycles  increases  from  period  to 
period.  What  is  true  of  the  average  is  true  also  at  each  stage  of  the 
experimental  cycle,  say  at  the  first  post-reaction  pulse.  The  same 
phenomenon  appears  also  on  the  second  normal  day.  It  is  less  con- 
spicuous after  dose  A  of  alcohol,  and  is  often  reversed  after  dose  B. 
That  is  to  say,  in  Subject  VII  alcohol  tends  to  prevent  the  retardation 
of  the  pulse  which  occurs  in  a  " normal"  3-hour  experimental  session. 
A  second  clear  indication  of  table  35  is  that  there  is  a  conspicuous 
difference  in  the  course  of  pulse-changes  from  pre-stimulation  to  post- 
reaction  between  the  normals  of  the  day,  1,  6,  11,  16,  and  subsequent 
periods  of  the  same  day. 


200 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


These  changes  appear  more  obviously  in  the  curves  of  figure  31, 
which  were  plotted  from  table  35. 

In  addition  to  the  phenomena  already  mentioned,  figure  31  brings 
out  several  correlations  between  the  course  of  the  experimental  process 
and  the  pulse.  The  pulse-changes  in  the  successive  periods  of  the  first 
normal  day  seem  to  indicate  a  gradual  process  of  adaptation  to  the 
experiment.  In  the  first  period  of  the  first  normal  day  there  is  a  marked 
pre-stimulation  decrease  in  the  length  of  the  pulse-cycles.  This  pre- 
stimulation  effect  clearly  diminishes  during  the  session,  though  the  last 

TABLE  35. — Summary  of  the  association  pulse  data  of  Subject  VII. 
[Length  of  pulse-cycles  given  in  hundredths  of  a  second.] 


Kind  of  experiment 
and  number  of 
association  series. 

Pre-stimulation  pulse-cycles. 

Stimulation 
to  reaction. 

Post-reaction 
pulse-cycles. 

Aver- 
age. 

Normal  I: 

1  

74.8  77.0  75.3  75.7  74.9 

73.2  70.9 

65.8  64.9  67.0  70.0 

71.8 

2  

78.4  79.3  79.1  78.7  78.8 

77.4  74.4 

68.4  67.4  69.6  73.0 

75  0 

3  

78.9  79.7  79.5  79.4  79.1 

78.0  75.7 

72.3  72.0  72.5  75.4 

76.6 

'A  

83.9  85.2  85.0  88.3  85.9 

81.4  81.9 

78.8  79.0  80.8   

83.0 

4  

....   87.2  87.1  86.0  84.7 

88.5  81.5 

79.0  81.0  83.6   

84.3 

5 

88.4  87.4  87.1  87.4  87.2 

87.0  82.0 

81.1  81.6  80.8 

85.0 

Alcohol  (dose  A)  : 

*6  

78.8  79.X  79.S  78.6  76.8 

75.  9  74.0 

70.0  71.0  73.0  75.0 

IB.  6 

7 

82.  0  83.  9  83.  7  83.  6  81.9 

80.9  78.6 

72.4  71.9  74.4 

79.3 

g 

78  .  2  79  .  0  79  .  0  79  .  2  78  .  1 

78.1  76.8 

72  .  9  72  .  8  74  .  9 

76.9 

>B  

84.5  85.3  85.4  85.3  85.5 

84.5  83.3 

80.6  81.4  82*0   "... 

83.8 

9  

82.6  82.6  83.5  84.0  83.9 

83.0  81.6 

78.7  79.2  81.4    .... 

82.0 

10 

82.6  83.0  83.5  83.6  83.6 

82.8  81.9 

81.2  79.9  80.1 

82.2 

Alcohol  (dose  B)  : 

'11  

74-4  76.0  76.0  74-6  74.8 

76.4  7S.1 

68.9  68.6  69.9  70.9 

79.9 

12  

72.5  71.3  71.6  72.0  73.1 

72.9  71.2 

68.1  68.2  68.5  69.9 

70.8 

13  

68.4  68.8  69.4  69.4  70.6 

69.8  70.2 

68.8  68.5  68.8  68.6 

69.2 

•A  

73.3  73.1  72.9  73.7  74.4 

73.9  73.1 

72.8  72.5  72.7  71.6 

73.1 

14  

74.3  74.5  74.8  75.2  75.6 

76.0  74.6 

74.0  73.2  72.9  72.0 

74.3 

15  

70.6  69.6  70.9  69.9  70.8 

70.8  69.4 

70.5  72.0  70.8  68.5 

70.4 

Normal  II: 

16  

.77.7  79.0  78.4  78.6  79.8 

79.0  74.6 

72.5  72.6  73.2  72.6 

76.2 

>A  

80.4  81.5  81.4  82.7  83.7 

83.3  79.3 

79.3  79.3  78.0   ... 

80.9 

17 

82.4  83.3  83.6  83.7  84.3 

84.4  81.6 

81  .  8  82  .  8  82  .  0 

83.0 

»B  

86.8  86.3  86.3  86.6  87.3 

87.9  85.5 

85.7  86.2  85.5   .  . 

86.4 

1  

....   89.0  89.7  89.5  90.5 

91.0  88.1 

87.0  87.7  87.1    .... 

88.8 

18  

....   89.3  91.3  91.6  91.4 

91.7  87.9 

84.9  85.6  85.8 

88.8 

'Kent-Rosanoff  series;  see  p.  120. 

*Serie8  6  and  11  are  normals  of  the  day  and  were  token  before  the  alcohol  dose  was  given. 

three  periods  are  too  irregular  for  generalization.  Similarly,  in  the 
succeeding  days,  the  pulse  of  the  first  period  (the  normal  of  the  day) 
shows  increasing  adaptation  as  the  subject  gets  more  and  more  familiar 
with  the  experiment.  That  is,  the  normal  of  the  day  pulse  has  slightly 
less  pre-stimulation  drop  on  the  second  day  than  on  the  first.  On  the 
third  day  it  shows  no  pre-stimulation  drop,  while  on  the  fourth  day 
the  greatest  relaxation  occurs  just  before  the  stimulus  is  given.  That 
this  is  not  an  accident  is  obvious  in  the  configuration  of  the  curves  for 


PULSE    DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


201 


r*»    <n    -    <o 


111 

?  ^  s 


(0        « 

all 


pulses 


<  i 
ni 

&*i 

^    4 


(O      ao      -      -t 
00     <0      O)     0) 


pXiwindV,   b 
i  uo^o-inQ  0}    o> 


202 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


i 


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PULSE    DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  203 


«S  -<  CO  <N  O  IN    95  X  »0  X  O  OS    tN  •*  <N  05  •«  -i        IN  O  I-H  b-  -H    <O  b-  O  IN  U5    Us  OS  O  *  CO  b. 


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204 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


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PULSE   DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  205 


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i^SIS^^m^S 
I 


206  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

the  succeeding  periods.  This  whole  picture  of  the  pulse  adaptation 
in  successive  periods  of  the  same  session  and  in  the  first  period  of 
successive  sessions  is  a  direct  analogue  to  the  familiar  laws  of  habit 
formation,  and  corresponds  with  the  large  practice  effect  that  was 
actually  found  to  occur  in  the  association  experiments  (Chapter  IV). 

Another  conspicuous  difference  in  the  pulse-reactions  on  the  first 
and  last  day  is  the  longer  duration  of  the  experimental  disturbance 
on  the  former.  This  again  is  probably  an  adaptation  phenomenon. 

To  recur  to  the  apparent  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  association  pulse, 
figure  31  makes  it  clear  that  gradually  increasing  pulse-retardation 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  session  is  a  distinct  and  character- 
istic feature  of  the  normal  days.  The  second  normal  day  starts  at  a 
slightly  different  level  from  the  first,  but  the  total  relaxation  change  is 
practically  the  same  in  both  days.  It  is  exactly  this  gradual  relaxation 
which  is  most  obviously  modified  in  the  curves  for  the  alcohol  pulse. 
After  dose  A  there  is  still  an  increase  in  the  average  duration  of  the 
pulse-cycles,  but  it  is  distinctly  less  than  on  the  normal  days.  After 
dose  B,  this  increase  in  duration  gives  place,  after  the  third  period  of 
the  day,  to  an  irregular  decrease.  A  further  conspicuous  effect  of  the 
larger  dose  is  almost  to  annihilate  the  experimental  rhythm. 

These  pulse-changes  in  Subject  VII  are  too  systematically  related 
and  too  clearly  marked  to  be  accidental,  but  only  a  few  of  them  are 
general  with  the  group.  While  there  are  points  of  agreement,  several 
subjects  seemed  to  show  more  or  less  persistent  pulse-changes  in  the 
association  test  which  are  purely  individual.  For  some  of  them,  the 
course  of  the  pulse  was  quite  irregular.  Subject  VII  shows  the  most 
pronounced  experimental  change.  Subject  IX  (a  native  German) ,  who 
had  considerable  difficulty  with  the  association  test,  shows  peculiarly 
long  and  relatively  large  post-stimulation  acceleration. 

The  data  of  association  pulse-changes  for  all  the  subjects  except 
Subject  VII,  which  has  already  been  given  in  the  preceding  table,  are 
given  in  table  36.  As  in  table  35,  each  average*represents  about  50 
pulse-cycles  in  a  corresponding  phase  of  the  association  experiment. 
All  averages  are  given  in  0.01".  The  number  or  letter  in  the  first 
column  designates  the  series  of  association  words  as  described  in 
Chapter  VI. 

Inspection  of  tables  35  and  36  shows  that  the  pulse  of  all  the  subjects 
is  accelerated  more  or  less  in  the  post-stimulation  phase  of  the  associ- 
ation experiments.  For  all  subjects,  moreover,  the  post-stimulation 
pulse-acceleration  is  greatest  on  the  first  normal  day.  The  same  kind 
of  adaptation  process  that  appeared  conspicuously  in  the  pulse-records 
of  Subject  VII  appears  hi  the  records  of  all  the  subjects  to  some  degree. 
Subjects  II,  X,  and  III  show  a  rapid  return  of  the  pre-stimulation 
pulse-length  immediately  after  reaction. 

The  average  post-stimulation  acceleration  of  the  pulse  is  shown  in 
table  37,  for  both  the  normal  and  the  alcohol  experiments,  by  the  aver- 


PULSE   DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


207 


age  decrease  in  the  length  of  post-stimulation  pulse-cycles.  For  illus- 
tration, the  post-stimulation  pulse-acceleration  of  Subject  II  on  the 
first  normal  day  is  0.043"  for  the  first  period  (see  table  36),  0.023"  for 
the  second,  0.026"  for  the  third,  etc.  The  average  of  all  periods  of  the 
first  and  second  normal  day  for  Subject  II  is  0.023."  (See  table  37.) 
From  the  averages  of  table  37  it  appears  that  alcohol  tends  to  de- 
crease the  post-stimulation  acceleration,  though  not  directly  in  propor- 
tion to  the  dose.  This  disproportion  depends  on  two  cases,  Subjects 
VI  and  IX.  Unfortunately,  the  lack  of  records  for  Subject  VI  after 
dose  A  unbalances  the  data  here  and  elsewhere  in  the  association-pulse 
records.  Inspection  of  the  individual  records  shows  that  the  dispro- 
portionate effect  of  the  doses  is  not  general.  Doubtless  in  these,  as  in 

TABLE  37. — Summary  of  the  post-stimulation  acceleration  as  shown  by  decreased 

length  of  post-stimulation  pulse-cycles. 

[Values  in  hundredths  of  a  second.) 


Subject. 

Averages. 

Difference  (1-2,  1-3,  etc.). 

Normal  I 
and  II. 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

Normal  I 
and  II. 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

II  
Ill  
IV  
VI 

2.3 
3.3 
3.1 
8.8 
5.8 
8.2 
3.0 
4.9 

1.3 
-2.5 
-0.1 

5.1 
1.2 
3.1 
1.3 

1.8 
2.3 
-0.9 

8.8 
2.1 

7.7 

s!e 

1.1 
-0.8 
-2.0 
2.0 
1.6 
1.3 
-1.2 
0.3 

5.5 
-0.2 
1.6 

.1 
.6 
.6 
.9 
.4 
-    .3 

'"2.2" 

VII  
IX  
X  
Average  .  . 

0.8 
8.2 
1.9 
3.0 

other  measurements,  the  " differences"  between  the  normal  of  the  day 
and  subsequent  periods  is  a  better  expression  of  the  effect  of  alcohol 
than  the  averages.  Both  expressions  agree  in  their  clear  indication  of 
a  f alling-off  in  the  post-stimulation  pulse-acceleration  after  the  ingestion 
of  alcohol. 

As  a  contribution  to  the  general  theory  of  association,  as  well  as  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  association  process,  it 
seemed  desirable,  if  possible,  to  use  our  extensive  pulse  data  for  a 
comparison  of  the  other  characteristics  of  the  association  experiments 
with  the  post-stimulation  pulse-acceleration.  Such  a  comparison  de- 
manded a  measure  of  the  experimental  acceleration  in  each  association 
reaction.  In  view  of  the  previous  discussion  of  the  intercurrent  pulse- 
rhythms,  and  the  statistical  treatment  of  our  pulse  data  in  the  effort 
to  eliminate  these  rhythms  from  the  average  results,  the  sources  of  error 
which  are  involved  in  the  attempt  to  isolate  the  true  experimental 
changes  in  each  experiment  need  no  new  emphasis. 

While  the  averages  of  50  measurements  at  each  homologous  moment 
in  the  experiment  should  give  a  fairly  satisfactory  indication  of  the 


208  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

tendency  of  the  pulse  during  the  experiment,  the  course  of  the  pulse 
in  any  single  experiment  would  be  subject  to  all  possible  accidental 
disturbances.  For  example,  if  the  post-stimulation  acceleration  hap- 
pened to  coincide  with  the  inspiration  acceleration  it  would  be  too 
large.  Conversely,  if  it  happened  to  coincide  with  the  expiration 
depression,  it  would  be  too  small,  perhaps  even  negative.  Fortunately, 
the  experimental  rhythm,  10"  between  stimuli,  is  quite  different  from 
the  respiration  rhythm,  and  it  seemed  possible,  consequently,  to  elabo- 
rate the  data  by  using  the  statistical  device  which  is  commonly  known 
as  the  sliding  average  to  eliminate  in  part  the  shorter  rhythms,  while 
leaving  the  longer  rhythm  relatively  undisturbed.  For  example,  a 
supposititious  series  of  pulse-records  may  be  thus  elaborated.  We  may 
suppose  a  pulse-sequence  which  shows  a  respiratory  pulse-rhythm  cor- 
responding to  the  series,  95,  90,  95,  100,  95.  If  the  experimental  accel- 
eration were  10,  and  the  stimulus  occurred  at  90,  the  series  would  read, 
95, 90, 85,  90,  85;  in  which  case  the  apparent  post-stimulus  acceleration 
would  be  only  0.05",  or  only  50  per  cent  of  the  hypothetical  acceleration. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  stimulus  coincided  with  the  value  100,  the 
line  would  read,  95,  90,  95,  100,  85,  90,  etc.,  and  the  apparent  post- 
stimulation  acceleration  would  be  0.15"  or  150  per  cent  of  the  hypo- 
thetical stimulation.  The  operation  of  a  sliding  average  of  3  would 
transform  our  supposititious  pulse-rhythm  to  93,  95,  97,  95,  and  the 
consequent  disturbance  of  the  experimental  change  occurring  at  any 
point  would  be  correspondingly  reduced. 

The  pulse  data  for  the  Kent-Rosanoff  association  series,  A  and  B, 
were  elaborated  in  this  way  by  substituting  the  sliding  average  of  three 
for  each  measured  pulse-length.  From  the  elaborated  table  the  post- 
stimulation  accelerations  were  computed  for  each  experiment.  It  is 
these  values  which  are  used  in  the  correlation  measurements  of  pulse 
and  association  character  as  described  in  Chapter  IV.  It  is  obvious 
that  such  elaboration  of  the  pulse  data  does  not  entirely  eliminate  the 
lesser  rhythm  that  it  mitigates,  and  that  it  leaves  all  of  the  larger  but 
probably  slower  and  less  disturbing  rhythms  untouched.  Each  meas- 
urement, consequently,  has  a  relatively  large  probable  error.  But  the 
errors  were  accidentally  distributed,  and  any  regular  or  close  connec- 
tion between  an  association  category  and  an  exaggerated  pulse-accel- 
eration should  appear  as  a  general  tendency  in  the  correlation,  if  it 
existed. 

In  addition  to  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  post-stimulation  pulse- 
acceleration,  our  data  permit  us  to  study  the  more  general  effect  of  the 
alcohol  doses  on  the  course  of  the  pulse  from  period  to  period  throughout 
the  3-hour  experimental  sessions.  A  summary  of  the  average  duration 
of  the  pulse-cycles  on  normal  and  on  alcohol  days  is  given  in  the  first 
part  of  table  38,  together  with  the  average  differences  between  the 
normal  of  the  day  and  subsequent  pulse-cycles.  In  the  second  part  of 


PULSE   DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


209 


table  38  is  shown  the  effect  of  dose  A  and  dose  B  on  the  average  pulse 
and  on  the  average  difference  respectively. 

An  inspection  of  table  38  shows  that  the  general  effect  of  alcohol  on 
the  average  duration  of  the  pulse-lengths  during  the  3-hour  association 
experiments  is  in  the  direction  of  pulse-acceleration.  The  average 
pulse-cycles  are  shorter  under  alcohol  than  on  normal  days.  In  terms 
of  the  average  differences  (1-2,  1-3,  etc.),  the  natural  retardation  of 
the  pulse  in  the  sequence  of  the  experimental  periods  is  notably  dimin- 
ished by  alcohol. 

The  numerical  values  of  these  changes  after  dose  A  and  dose  B  are 
given  in  the  columns  under  the  legends,  "Effect  of  alcohol:  dose  A," 

TABLE  38. — Summary  of  the  average  length  of  pulse-cycles  during  the  association  experiments 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject, 

Normal  I 
and  II. 

Alcohol. 

Effect  of  alcohol 
(alcohol  —normal). 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

Dose  A. 

DoseB. 

Aver- 
age 

Aver- 
age 
differ- 
ence. 

Aver- 
age. 

Aver- 
age 
differ- 
ence. 

Aver- 
age. 

Aver- 
age 
differ- 
ence. 

Aver- 
age 

Aver- 
age 
differ- 
ence. 

Aver- 
age. 

Aver- 
age 
differ- 
ence. 

II  
Ill 

1,050 
797 
931 
876 
816 
968 
913 
907 

-  69 
-106 
-168 
-172 
-  91 
-102 
-161 
-124 

1,018 
769 
890 

799 
862 
862 
867 

+     8 
-  79 
-152 

-56 

AA 

-  88 
-  68 

1,040 
872 
927 
849 
728 
850 

'878 

+  26 
-  59 
-114 
-173 
+     1-4 
+  19 

-50 

-  32 

-  28 

A1 

-17 
-106 
-  51 
-  46 

+77 
+27 
+16 

'+35' 

+58 
+73 
+48 

-   10 
+  75 
-     4 
-  27 
-  88 
-118 

-29 

+  95 
+  47 
+  54 

1 

+  92 
+121 

+"68' 

IV  
VI  
VII 

IX  

JX  

Average  

'One  normal  day  only. 

and  "  dose  B  "  respectively.  This  table  shows  that  the  average  normal 
retardation  of  the  pulse  in  the  3-hour  association  experiments  is  0.048" 
more  than  it  is  after  the  30  c.c.  dose,  and  0.068"  more  than  it  is  after 
45  c.c.  dose  of  alcohol.  In  each  case  where  there  are  data  for  both 
doses,  the  effect  varies  with  the  dose.  In  the  entire  group  of  data  there 
is  only  one  negative  instance,  Subject  VI. 

In  answer  to  the  question  whether  alcohol  accelerated  or  retarded 
the  pulse  during  the  association  experiments,  one  must  say  that  while 
an  actual  acceleration  after  the  dose  of  alcohol  is  only  occasional,  a 
relative  acceleration  is  almost  universal.  In  other  words,  under  similar 
conditions,  and  in  homologous  periods  of  the  3-hour  experimental 
sessions,  the  pulse  is  faster  after  alcohol  than  on  normal  days. 

A  comparison  of  the  pulse-lengths  of  the  various  periods  of  the  two 
normal  days  and  after  alcohol  is  given  in  table  39. 

The  course  of  the  pulse  on  the  first  normal  day  shows  a  regular 
retardation  from  the  first  to  the  last  period.  A  comparison  of  the 


210 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


course  of  the  pulse  in  homologous  periods  of  the  first  and  second 
normal  days  shows  that  the  retardation  is  slightly  less  in  the  second 
normal  day,  period  for  period,  than  it  is  in  the  first.  The  second  normal 
day,  moreover,  shows  a  somewhat  less  regular  retardation  than  the 
first.  Period  for  period,  the  alcohol  days  show  less  retardation  than 
the  normal.  As  between  the  different  doses  of  alcohol,  the  larger  dose 
shows  less  retardation  in  homologous  periods  than  the  smaller. 

TABLE  39. — Difference*  between  the  average  pulse-length  of  the  first  and  of  each  succeeding  period. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and 

Vormal 

Subject  and 

j 

Ucohol 

experiment. 

1-2 

-3 

,-4 

1-5 

1-6 

experiment. 

1-2 

1-3 

1-4 

1-5 

1-6 

Normal  I: 

Dose  A: 

II  

-  30 

-  45 

-  74 

-  72 

II  

+  26 

+  28 

-  28 

+     8 

+     7 

Ill  

-  73 

-  79 

-144 

-166 

-196 

III.. 

-  18 

-100 

-  99 

-  67 

-109 

rv  

-118 

-169 

-189 

-229 

IV  

-  89 

-152 

-164 

-207 

VI  

-109 

-114 

-175 

-218 

-175 

VI  

VII  

-  32 

-  48 

-112 

-125 

-132 

VII  

-37 

-  13 

-'M' 

'-'74' 

-76 

IX  

-  86 

-  75 

-130 

-125 

IX  

+  15 

-  35 

-  57 

-  60 

-  95 

X  

-128 

-122 

-193 

-207 

-176 

X  

-  52 

-  92 

-  91 

-  94 

-113 

Average  

-  82 

-  95 

-145 

-163 

-170 

Average  

-  26 

-  61 

-  87 

-  82 

-  79 

Normal  II: 

Dose  B: 

II  

-  51 

-  58 

-102 

-  84 

-123 

II  

+  25 

+  32 

+  27 

0 

-  36 

III. 

-  22 

-  80 

-157 

-112 

-  79 

Ill  

-  25 

-  52 

-  65 

-  87 

-  66 

IV  

—  137 

—  163 

—  169 

—  174 

IV 

—  43 

—  81 

—  119 

—  212 

VI... 

-139 

-142 

-  85 

-201 

-216 

VI  

-  82 

-  89 

-201 

-262 

-234 

VII  

-  47 

-  68 

-102 

-126 

-126 

VII  ... 

+  71 

+  39 

-     2 

-  14 

-I-  25 

IX  

-  66 

-  48 

-122 

-142 

-135 

IX  

-  29 

-  71 

-  40 

-  25 

-  21 

Average  

-  75 

-  93 

-140 

-140 

-136 

Average  

_  22 

-  13 

-  51 

-100 

-  66 

Total    av  

-  78 

QA 

-142 

-151 

-153 

Diff.  (A-B)... 

-     4 

-  48 

-  36 

+  18 

-   13 

Diff.  (I  -II)... 

-     7 

-     2 

-     5 

-  23 

-  34 

Effect  (alcohol 

—  normal). 

Dose  A  

+  52 

+  33 

+  55 

+  69 

+  74 

Dose  B  

+  56 

+  81 

+  91 

+  51 

+  87 

In  estimating  the  degree  of  probability  of  these  results,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  they  are  based  on  the  measurement  of  over  12,000 
pulse-cycles  for  each  subject,  except  Subjects  X  and  VI.  The  large 
number  of  data,  the  consistency  of  the  results,  and  their  direct  corre- 
spondence to  the  size  of  the  dose  satisfy,  we  believe,  the  most  rigid 
criteria  of  experimental  evidence  for  a  causal  relationship  between  the 
ingestion  of  small  doses  of  alcohol  and  a  relative  acceleration  of  the  pulse 
during  the  moderate  mental  activity  of  the  association  experiments. 

It  is  worth  inquiring  further  whether  there  is  evidence  that  the  rela- 
tive acceleration  has  reached  its  climax  within  the  experimental  session. 
A  comparison  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  differences  (table  39)  shows 
that  there  is  a  regularly  increasing  relative  acceleration  after  dose  A 


PULSE   DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  211 

that  is  greatest  at  the  end  of  the  session.  The  evidence  is  less  clear 
after  dose  B.  But  in  neither  case  does  it  appear  clear  that  a  real  climax 
of  the  acceleration  effect  has  been  reached  in  the  3-hour  session. 

The  question  of  cause  can  not  be  answered  from  our  association-pulse 
data.  These  data  alone  can  not  even  answer  the  question  whether  the 
relative  acceleration  is  a  general  consequence  of  the  ingestion  of  alcohol, 
or  a  consequence  that  is  peculiar  to  a  special  kind  of  moderate  mental 
activity  after  taking  alcohol.  Both  of  these  questions  need  the  addi- 
tional data  from  the  pulse-records  during  the  other  experimental 
processes. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  PULSE-RATE  DURING  WORD- 
REACTION  AND  FINGER-MOVEMENT  EXPERIMENTS  AND  ALSO 
DURING  MODERATE  MUSCULAR  ACTIVITY  AND  REST. 

In  accordance  with  our  general  program  (Appendix  I),  pulse-records 
were  taken  at  a  variety  of  homologous  points  in  the  course  of  every 
experimental  session.  In  the  light  of  the  results,  it  would  doubtless  be 
desirable  if  these  records,  like  those  taken  during  the  association  experi- 
ments, could  have  been  more  numerous,  or  perhaps  even  continuous. 
That  this  was  not  arranged  for  was  due  partly  to  the  enormous  addi- 
tional labor  and  expense  that  would  have  been  entailed,  partly  to  the 
technical  difficulties,  and  partly  to  the  belief  that  shorter  records 
covering  several  respiration  rhythms  at  homologous  points  in  the  experi- 
mental session  would  contain  sufficient  pulse  data  to  indicate  clearly 
the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  pulse  frequency  during  the  experiments. 
With  respect  to  continuous  records,  it  is  obvious  that  they  would  be 
useful  only  if  homologous  moments  of  the  session  were  clearly  indi- 
cated, and  only  the  records  of  such  moments  might  be  compared.  Our 
"sample"  records,  as  we  may  call  them,  are  theoretically  as  adequate 
as  any  comparable  phases  of  continuous  records  could  be.  The  only 
advantage  of  continuous  records  would  be  that  the  number  of  phases 
could  be  indefinitely  extended. 

It  will  be  obvious,  to  all  those  who  have  struggled  with  the  difficulties 
of  securing  pulse-records  during  muscular  activity,  why  sphygmo- 
graphic  devices  which  depend  on  air  transmission  were  not  even  con- 
sidered for  the  present  group  of  records.  The  pulse-recording  technique 
first  used  in  these  experiments  was  the  Dodge  telephone-recorder  from 
the  temporal  artery,  our  method  I.  Later  we  took  electro-cardiograms 
from  body  leads  through  condensers,  our  method  III.  Both  methods 
call  for  the  use  of  a  string  galvanometer  as  a  recording  instrument. 
Both  methods  are  equally  accurate,  but  in  simplicity  of  adjustment, 
and  dependability  under  all  sorts  of  conditions,  we  believe  that  the 
latter  method  has  no  equal  for  recording  the  pulse-rate. 


212 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


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PULSE    DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


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PULSE    DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


223 


The  particular  phases  of  the  experimental  sessions  during  which 
" sample"  pulse-records  were  taken  varied  with  the  experimental  series. 
In  the  group  of  experiments,  Series  I  and  I  A,  pulse-records  were  taken 
during  the  finger-movements  and  during  word-reactions.  In  all  cases, 
"rest"  or  no  activity  records  were  taken  after  the  subject  was  in  posi- 
tion, but  before  the  experimental  process  was  begun.  In  the  group  of 
experiments,  Series  II  and  HA,  pulse-records  were  taken  at  rest,  i.  e., 
sitting  in  position,  immediately  after  standing,  60"  after  standing, 
immediately  after  two  double  genuflections,  and  60"  thereafter. 

The  average  length  of  pulse-cycles  under  these  several  conditions  at 
various  periods  of  the  experimental  session  is  shown  in  table  40. 

A  summary  of  the  average  pulse-differences  during  the  different 
experimental  processes  is  given  in  table  41.  Unfortunately,  in  several 
instances  the  data  are  not  complete.  This  is  due  to  a  number  of 
circumstances,  but  chiefly  to  our  estimate  of  the  relative  importance 
of  the  main  experimental  measurements.  If  a  session  was  overcrowded 
or  if  the  pulse-recording  apparatus  failed  to  function,  the  main  meas- 
urements were  taken  without  the  pulse.  The  consequent  gaps  in  the 
data  seemed  to  make  it  inexpedient  to  compare  the  effects  of  the  differ- 
ent doses  on  the  pulse,  except  in  the  pulse-rate  of  rest  and  of  finger- 
movement,  in  which  cases  the  records  were  more  numerous. 

TABLE  41. — Pulse  data  during  mental  and  physical  activity — Differences.1 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment  . 

Date  and 
periods  com- 
pared. 

Rest. 

Word- 
reac- 
tion. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  1. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  2. 

Rising. 

60" 
after 
rising. 

2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

60" 

after 
2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

Subject  II. 
Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Normal  

Sept.  23,  1913: 
1-3  
1-4  
1-5  
1-6  
1-7  
1-8  
1-9  
1-10  
1-11  
1-12  
1-13  
1-14  
Average  . 
Dec.     5,  1913: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-4  
Average  . 
Dec.  19,  1913: 
1-2  
1-3  
Average  . 

+  61 
-  1 
+  1 
+  12 
-135 
-  32 
-  21 
+  3 
-  29 
-  88 
+  12 
-130 
-  29 

0 
+  142 
-  40 
+  34 

-  3, 
-  29 
-  33 

+  30 
-   14 
-  34 
+  16 
-     3 

+  25 

+  25' 

+  50 
+  97 
+  73 

+  19 
-  32 
-  57 
+  48 
-  42 
-  46 
-     8 

-  77 
-  37 
-     4 
-  39 

+  41 

+  47 
+  44 

-  57 
-106 
-  92 
-  85 

+  87 
-  49 
+  19 

+     4 
-  25 
+     2 
-     6 

-  18 
-  31 
-  24 

-  37 
-     4 
0 
-  13 

+  50 

+  98 
+  74 

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 


224 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  41. — Pulte  data  during  mental  and  physical  activity — Difference*1 — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and 
periods  com- 
pared. 

Rest. 

Word- 
reac- 
tion. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  1. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  2. 

Rising. 

60" 

after 
rising. 

2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

60" 
after 
2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

Subject  11  —  con. 
Alcohol  (dose  B).. 

Normal  

Subject  HI. 
Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Normal  

Normal  
Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Alcohol  (dose  B).. 
Normal  

Mar.  10,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-4  
Average  . 
Mar.  17,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-4 

+  60 
+  59 
-  15 
+  35 

-105 
-296 
(*) 

-  32 
-  41 
-  32 
-  35 

+  18 
-  31 

—  98 

+     5 
-  33 
-     8 
-  12 

+     2 
-138 

O 
+  18 
+  22 
+  20 

-     8 

1-5  
Average  . 

Sept.  24,  1913: 
-  2  
-  4  
-  5  
-  6  
-7  
-  8  
-  9  
-10  
-11  
-12  
-13  
-14  
-15  
-10  
Average  . 
Oct.      1,  1913: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-1  
1-5  
1-6  
1-7  
Average  . 
Jan.    19,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-4 

-325 
-245 

-I-  25 
+  21 
+     9 
0 
0 
-   17 
-   11 
-   19 
-  35 
-  57 
-  60 
-  67 

-62 
-  21 

-  49 
-108 
-241 
-249 
-313 
-262 
-204 

+  34 

+180 

-119 
-  57 

-  59 
-  65 

-  85 
-106 

-140 

-142 

-153 

-190 
-214 
-193 

-165 
-234 
-228 
-230 

-239 

+  49 

-216 
-184 

-  81 
-121 
-195 
(*) 
-220 
-201 
-164 

+  145 
+  50 
+  19 
+  71 

-  35 
-  65 
-106 
-  66 
-     1 
-  54 

-  68 
+  49 
-  78 
-  32 

-  97 
-  48 
-  6 
-164 
-  20 
-  67 

-  46 
-164 
-  33 
-  81 

+     9 
-  16 
-  91 
-     5 
-     6 
-  21 

-  77 
-178 
-138 
-130 

-     9 
-  24 
-  90 

+     7 

-'29' 

Average  . 
Jan.    26,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3 

+107 

+  45 
-  45 
+116 
-  28 
-  40 
+    9 

-  83 
-  94 
-     7 
-  61 

-147 
-281 
-214 

+  49 

+    3 

-   13 
-  45 

1-4  
1-6 

1-6  
Average  . 
Feb.     9,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-t  
Average  . 
Mar.    9,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  
Average  . 

+    3 

-  50 
-  69 
-  56 
-  58 

-   14 
-  79 
-  46 

-  39 

-  87 

-63 

-144 
-  81 
-112 

-  29 

-100 
-  60 
-  80 

'Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1—4,  etc., 


'Record  illegible. 


PULSE   DURING   MENTAL  AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


225 


TABLE  41 . — Pulse  data  during  mental  and  physical  activity — Differences* — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and 
periods  com- 
pared. 

Rest. 

Word- 
reac- 
tion. 

"Inger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  1. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  2. 

Rising. 

60" 

after 
rising. 

2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

60" 
after 
2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

Subject  IV. 
Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Sept.  27,  1913: 
1-2  

-  51 

-  99 

1-3 

-  59 

-  93 

1-4 

—  113 

-134 

1-5 

-  88 

-  91 

Average 

-  78 

-104 

Normal  

Oct.     2,  1913: 
1-2 

-  60 

-  18 

-  63 

1  3 

-179 

-  38 

-  35 

1-4 

—246 

—  191 

-  83 

Normal  

Average. 
Jan.   30,  1914: 
1  2 

-162 

—     9 

—  39 

-  82 

-220 

-  77 

-  60 

+     8 

+  54 

1-3 

+  26 

-239 

-  44 

-  78 

-  39 

1-4 

-  79 

-221 

-  40 

+  28 

-  74 

Alcohol  (dose  B).. 

Average  . 
Feb.   13,  1914: 
1  2 

-  20 

—     3 

-  39 

-  74 

(2) 

-226 

-  53 

-  14 

-  19 

1—3 

—  114 

—  138 

(2) 

1—4 

225 

150 

—   14 

-114 

-120 

-  14 

Normal  

Mar.  19,  1914: 

1  2 

96 

22 

5 

—  76 

1  3 

—  114 

-  64 

-  72 

-  18 

1  '4 

185 

—  65 

—  49 

—  100 

1—5 

+  10 

125 

Subject  VI. 
Normal  

Average  . 

Oct.     7,  1913: 
1  2 

-104 

-f  66 

-  69 

-  42 

-f-     4 

-  65 

1-3  
1  4 

+  42 
+  19 

0 
(*) 

1  5 

+  89 

—  41 

+   -  1 

18 

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Oct.    14,  1913: 
1  2 

+  74 

1   o 

_1_    01 

+  38 

1  5 

+  80 

1-6 

—   11 

_i_  54 

Normal  

Oct.   22,  1913: 

123 

1  3 

—  48 

10 

-I       K 

117 

1—6 

120 

103 

85 

nc 

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Oct.   29,  1913: 

20 

+   16 

+   2Q 

i       7 

Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 


'Record  illegible. 


226 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  41. — Puke  data  during  mental  ami  physical  activity — Differences1 — Continued 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and 
periods  com- 
pared. 

Rest. 

WordJ 
reac- 
tion. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  1. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  2. 

Rising. 

60" 
after 
rising. 

2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

60" 
after 
2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

Subject  VI—  con. 
Alcohol  (dose  A) 
—  con. 

Oct.  29,  1913: 
1-7  
1-  8  
1-  9  

+  133 
+   14 
+108 

1-10  

-H35 

Normal 

Average  . 
Nov.    5,  1913: 

+  52 

1-2 

+  50 

+  29 

—   14 

1-3 

-  10 

+  113 

+  53 

+  89 

Average 

+  20 

+113 

+  41 

+  37 

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Nov.  12,  1913: 
1-2  

-  27 

+  51 

-    17 

-101 

Normal  
Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

1-3  
1-4  
1-5  
Average  . 
Nov.  19,  1913: 

1-3  
Average  . 
Dec.     2,  1913: 
1-2  

1-3  
1-4  

-   17 
-     5 
+  13 
-     9 

-I-  86 
+  95 
+  90 

+  120 
+  97 
+  109 

-  62 
-"«' 

-  49 
-   15 
-  60 
-  18 

-  22 
-  20 
-  21 

-  24 
-  22 
-  13 

-  22 
-22 

+     6 
+  40 
+  41 

-  81 
-  99 
-  94 
-  73 

-     9 
-     5 

-  32 
-  62 

+     8 

-  21 
+  19 
-     9 
-  28 

+  34 
+  26 
+  30 

+  86 

+  89 
+  58 

Alcohol  (doaeB).. 

1-5  
Average  . 
Jan.    22,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-4  

+  162 
+122 

+  30 
+  80 
+  60 

-     9 
-  17 

+     7 
-166 
-  20 

+  44 
+  33 

-  43 

+     1 
-  72 

+  20 
-  16 

-  21 
-  34 
-  33 

+  43 
+  69 

-  21 

+  25 

1-5  
1-6 

+  39 
+  13 

-     2 
-     5 

-     3 

+  40 

+  19 
+  14 

+  23 
+  33 

Alcohol  (dose  B).. 

Average  . 
Jan.    28.  1914: 
1-2 

+  44 

+  71 

—     6 

-  37 

-  15 

-  11 

+    4 

1-3 

+  31 

+  42 

+     6 

1-4 

+111 

+     8 

+     6 

1-6 

-204 

—  109 

—  44 

+    2 

-  19 

_    9 

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Feb.   12,  1914: 
1—2 

0 

+     7 

+  28 

—  95 

1-3 

-  74 

+  13 

—  20 

—  38 

Average  . 

-  37 

+  10 

+    4 

-  66 

Subject  VII. 
Normal 

Oct.     8  1913' 

1-2  
1-3  
1-4  
Average 

-101 
-110 
-177 
-129 

-130 

"(*)" 
-130 



Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Oct.     8,  1913: 
1-2  

-  69 

1-3         .    . 

-  76 

1-4 

-122 

1-5 

-  82 

1-6 

+     4 

1-7 

-164 

1-8 

-  76 

-  83 

'Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 


'Record  illegible. 


PULSE   DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


227 


TABLE  41. — Pulse  data  during  mental  and  physical  activity — Differences1 — Continued. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Subject  and  kind 
of  experiment. 

Date  and 
periods  com- 
pared. 

Rest. 

Word- 
reac- 
tion. 

"inger-  Finger- 
move-  move- 
ments: ments 
No.  1.  No.  2. 

Rising. 

60" 

after 
rising. 

genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

60" 
after 
genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

Subject  VII  —  con. 
Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 
Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Alcohol  (dose  B).. 
Normal  

Subject  IX. 
Normal  

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 
Normal  
Normal  

Oct.    15,  1913: 
1-2  
1-3 

-  47 
-     1 

-  81 
-  71 

1-4  
1-5  
1-6 

-  38 
-117 
-203 
-166 
-  95 

+  42 
-  21 
-  63 

+  81 
+    9 

+  31 
-   16 

-209 
-130 
-179 
-253 
-154 

+  38 
+  12 
+  42 
+  53 
+  36 

-  59 
-  66 
-  58 
-119 
-  75 

+  20 
+     1 
-   14 
-  47 
-  10 

-  28 
-113 
-  53 
-129 
—  80 

1-7  
Average  . 
Nov.  11,  1913: 
1-2  
1-3  
1—4 

+  38 
-  68 
+  48 
+  13 
+    8 

-  38 
-  25 
-  83 
-  69 
-  54 

-  50 
-   14 
-  37 
-  62 
-  40 

1-5  
Average  . 
Dec.     3,  1913: 
1-2  
1-3 

1-4  
1-5  
Average  . 
Mar.  13,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-4  
Average  . 
Mar.  20,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-4  
Average 

Oct.    10,  1913: 

1-2 

-  95 

-  28 
-  27 

+  42 
+  21 
+  31 
+  31 

-  90 
-115 
-100 
-101 

-  30 
+  48 
-136 
-124 
-  60 

65 

+  16 
-  31 
-  19 
-  11 

-  57 
-  53 
-  92 
-  67 

-     4 
'."4 

-  89 
-  40 
-  24 
-  51 

-  94 
-162 
-134 
+  78 
-  78 

—  15 

+     5 

-  42 

-'is  " 

+  63 
-  45 
-  71 
-  18 



1-3  
1-4  
1—5 

Average 
Oct.    20,  1913: 
1  2 

1-3  
1-4  
1-5  
1—6 

-  80 
-114 
-121 
151 

+  32 
+  18 
+    8 
+  50 





1-7  
Average 
Oct.   27,  1913: 

-169 
-115 

75 

+  44 
+  23 

47 

ec 

1-5  

-119 

80 

1-7  
Average 
Nov.  10,  1913 
1-2  
1   3 

-104 
-  80 

-  61 

84 

+  59 
-  17 
-  13 
+    9 

-122 
-221 
-155 
-166 

-  79 
-  71 
-  96 
-  82 

1-4  
Average 

-123 
-  89 



'Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 


22S 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  41. — Pulse  data  during  mental  and  physical  activity — Differenced — Continual 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second. 


Subject  and  kind 
of  .experiment. 

Date  and 
periods  com- 
pared. 

Rest. 

Word- 
reac- 
tion. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  1. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments 
No.  2. 

Rising. 

60" 
after 
rising. 

2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

60" 
after 
2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

Subject  IX  —  con. 
Alcohol  (dos«  A).. 

Nov.  17,  1913: 
1-2  
1-3  

+  68 
-  80 

+     4 
+   14 

-     2 
-  33 

-  70 
-172 

1-4  

-  26 

-     2 

-  99 

-123 

1-6  
Average  . 

+  10 
-  10 

-  20 
-     1 

-  80 
-  53 

-161 
-131 

Normal  

Nov.  24,  1913: 
1-2 

+  23 

-  35 

-   10 

-     l 

-   18 

+  16 

1-3  

-  86 

-  43 

-101 

-   18 

-     6 

1-4 

—  155 

+  15 

-103 

-  73 

-100 

-  60 

Alcohol  (doae  A).. 
Alcohol  (dose  B).. 

Average  . 
Dec.     1,  1913: 
1-2  
1-3  
1-4  
1-5  
Average  . 
Jan.    21,  1914: 
1-2 

-  72 

-   14 
+  85 
+  68 

+  '43' 
-  41 

-  10 



-  52 

-  29 
+  49 
+  27 

+  68 
+  26 

-  58 

+  39 

+  70 
-  36 
0 
+  18 

-  45 

+  43 
+  26 
+  61 
+  69 
+  49 

16 

-  99 
-  79 
-  50 
-132 
-  90 

1-3 

+  29 

-  33 

-  13 

-  72 

+     6 

1-4 

-  86 

-  66 

—     9 

-  81 

-     9 

Alcohol  (dose  B).. 

1-5  
l-«  
1-7  
Average  . 
Jan.    29,  1914: 
1-2  

-  62 
-  92 
+  13 
-39.8 

-  41 

-  49 

-  20 

+  25 
-  34 

_  22 

+  18 
+  47 
-  83 
-     8 

-1-  39 
-  46 
-     4 
-  33 

+  10 
-  74 
-  46 
-  23 

1-3  

+     5 

—  40 

-  18 

1-4     .... 

-  70 

—  140 

-4-  29 

1-5 

-  49 

—   15 

+     2 

-  36 

-  61 

-17 

Subject  X. 
Normal  

Feb.  11,  1914: 
1-2 

+  10 

—  60 

—  37 

1-3  

-     1 

-127 

-  63 

1-4  

-  52 

-133 

-  77 

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Average  . 
Feb.   18,  1914: 
1-2  
1-3  

-  14 

-  81 
-  64 

-107 

-  68 
-120 

-  56 

-  90 

-  96 

1-4  

-   19 

-109 

Average  . 

-  55 

-  99 

-  90 

-  96 

Normal  

Mar.  11,  1914: 

1-2  

+  24 

-  50 

-  47 

+  23 

-  33 

1-3  

-  31 

-     9 

-  31 

+  11 

-     1 

1-4  

+  18 

+  20 

-  27 

0 

+  18 

1-6  

+  80 

+  14 

-  16 

+  33 

-     6 

1-6  

+112 

+  29 

+  22 

-   16 

-  39 

Alcohol  (dose  A).. 

Average. 
Mar.  18,  1914: 
1-2  

+  40 

+  60 

+     4 

+    08 

+  36 

-  19 

-     4 

+  10 

-  34 

-    6 

-     3 

1-3  

+  39 

+  17 

+  61 

+  46 

-  28 

+  14 

1-4  

+  17 

+  34 

+  70 

+  59 

-     4 

+  59 

1^6  

+  36 

+  68 

+  60 

+     7 

+     5 

-     6 

Average. 

+  35 

+  17 

+  54 

+  27 

-  15 

+  16 

'Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 


PULSE   DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  229 

Probably  the  most  insistent  impression  from  a  casual  inspection  of 
table  41  will  be  the  enormous  variability  of  the  pulse  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual under  what  might  appear  to  be  identical  conditions.  In  the 
case  of  Subject  II,  for  example,  the  normal  rest-pulse  has  an  average 
difference  in  one  case  (December  5)  of  +34  and  in  the  other  case 
(March  17)  of  —245.  No  changes  due  to  the  effect  of  alcohol  exceed 
this  change  on  different  normal  days.  It  might  seem  that  out  of  such 
chaotic  data  nothing  could  be  learned.  But  the  data  are  not  so  chaotic 
as  they  might  seem  at  the  first  uncritical  glance.  If  one  refers  to  the 
other  average  normal  differences  for  Subject  II  (December  5  and 
March  17)  which  are  given  in  table  41,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  rest- 
pulse  differences  of  -f-34  and  —245  belong  to  quite  different  series  of 
experiments.  The  former  corresponds  to  an  experimental  series  which 
included  the  relatively  vigorous  muscular  activities  which  are  involved 
in  rising  from  the  steamer-chair,  standing,  and  the  double  genuflections. 
The  latter  corresponds  to  an  experimental  series  in  which  there  was  a 
minimum  of  physical  activity.  We  would  not  deny  that  there  is  large, 
even  gross,  variability  in  the  pulse  differences  under  what  were  intended 
to  be  similar  circumstances.  It  was  something  of  a  revelation  to  us 
that  apparently  similar  conditions  could  be  so  different.  But  the 
accidental  variations  are  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  apparent  variations 
which  are  really  due  to  the  differences  in  the  experimental  series. 

In  view  of  these  differences,  it  may  be  questioned  if  we  are  not  com- 
mitting a  gross  statistical  blunder  by  combining  into  a  single  table 
results  which  developed  under  such  various  conditions.  In  answer, 
let  us  insist  that,  except  in  rare  instances,  normal  and  alcohol  data  both 
appear  for  each  set  of  conditions.  Since  data  from  each  set  of  condi- 
tions are  obviously  directly  comparable  with  respect  to  the  effect  of 
alcohol,  when  the  different  sets  of  conditions  are  added  together  the 
alcohol  differences  will  not  thereby  disappear  or  be  quantitatively 
changed.  One  will  merely  average  the  changes  due  to  alcohol  which 
occurred  in  the  rest-pulse  of  all  the  experimental  series.  We  have  a 
right  to  assume  that  the  effects,  which  result  from  differences  in  the 
experimental  series,  will  balance.  Changes  which  are  due  to  accidental 
disturbances  would  also  tend  to  balance  the  more  completely  the  greater 
the  number  of  instances.  The  changes  which  represent  the  real  ten- 
dency of  alcohol  should  therefore  most  clearly  appear  in  the  total 
averages  of  all  the  results  which  were  obtained  under  all  the  different 
sets  of  homologous  conditions. 

An  inspection  of  the  general  averages  of  the  differences  given  in  the 
extreme  right-hand  column  of  table  42  shows  that  in  this  group  of 
experimental  circumstances,  just  as  in  the  association  experiments, 
there  was  a  gradual  retardation  of  the  pulse  during  the  3-hour  session. 
On  normal  days  this  retardation  averaged  greatest  in  the  finger-move- 
ment experiment,  and  least  in  the  more  violent  muscular  activities. 


230 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


Apparently  standing  and  the  genuflections  are  accompanied  by  about 
the  same  pulse-rate  at  the  end  as  at  the  beginning  of  a  3-hour  session. 
It  is  undoubtedly  owing  to  the  interplay  of  these  same  physical  activi- 
ties that  the  average  retardation  in  the  normal  rest-pulse  of  these 
experiments  is  approximately  one-third  of  what  it  was  in  the  associa- 
tion experiments  which  were  free  from  violent  physical  activity. 

Notwithstanding  this  difference  in  the  experimental  conditions,  it  is 
conspicuous  that  in  every  case  the  average  retardation  after  alcohol  is 

TABLE  42. — Summary  of  average  pulse  differences.1 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Conditions. 

Subject 
II. 

Subject 
III. 

Subject 

rv. 

Subject 
VI. 

Subject 
VII. 

Subject 
IX. 

Subject  Aver- 
X.        age. 

Rest: 
Normal  

Dose  A  

Dose  B  

Word-reaction  : 
Normal... 

Alcohol  

Finger-movement*  : 
Normal  

Dose  A  
DoseB  

Rising: 
Normal  

Alcohol  

60"  after  rising: 
Normal 

+  34 
-245 

+  107 
-204 
-214 

'+'  9 
-  21 

-  61 
-  46 

-162 
-104 
-  20 

-  78 

-114 

-  69 
-  39 

+  20 
+  90 
+  64 
-  95 
-     9 
+  122 
+  54 
-  37 
+  44 
+     2 

-  62 

-129 
-101 

-  95 
-  83 
+     9 
-  27 
+  31 

-  67 

-   60 
-  80 
-  89 
-  72 
-115 
-  10 
+  43 

-  36 
-  40 

-    10 

-   14  [I 
+  4°      -62 

-  65  n 

+  3S      -18 
J  -17 
~107U-48 

-  33 
-  29 

'+'35' 

+  26 
-  57 
+  73 
-  35 

-  65 
-  66 

"-"s 

-  12 
-  20 

-  85 

'+'l9' 

-  58 

-120 

+  10 

-   11 

~  ~  \(     oft 

+  17  I"' 

-  66  PI 
1-73 

-164 
-  80 
-112 
-184 

-  63 
-  29 

+  71 
-  54 

-  82 
-  42 
-  65 
-104 

-  14 
-226 

-   18 

"+"4" 
-  66 
-   19 
-  09 

+113 
-  21 
-   18 
-  37 

-130 
-  51 
-  18 
-154 

----- 

-   18 

"+"B 

-  64 

-   78 

+  23 

-  61 
-     2 

+     9 
-  62 
-     1 
-  22 

-  90  n  75 

-  96   /     ' 
[}-23 
+     4-24 
'+'M|-9 

-     6 
-  24 

-  32 
-  67 

-  53 

-  22 
-   15 
+  33 

+  41 
-     5 
-  73 
-   16 
—   11 

-  40 

+  36 
-  75 

-  68 
+  18 
-     8 

-166 
-  45 
-  53 
-  33 
+  49 

-  82 
—   16 

-19-32 

+  a7D-f 

Alcohol 

2  genuflections: 
Normal 

-   13 

"+74 

-  81 
-  21 

-  60 
-  14 

+  10L*7 

-  15  n 

|-  9 

Alcohol 

60"  after  2  genuflections: 
Normal 

-  39 

-130 

-  19 

+  37 
+  30 
-  28 
+     4 

-    4-28 

Alcohol 

+  44 

-  29 

-  10 

—  80 

-131 
—  23 

+  10  n 

l_22 

+  69 

—  90 

'Differences  equal  periods  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  etc. 


PULSE   DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  231 

less  than  on  normal  days,  just  as  it  was  in  the  association  experiments. 
In  the  wide  variety  of  mental  and  muscular  activities  which  are  repre- 
sented by  these  measurements,  making  very  different  demands  on  the 
heart,  the  effect  of  alcohol  is  always  in  the  same  direction.  Individual 
exceptions  to  the  rule  are  more  numerous  than  in  the  association 
experiments,  but  they  are  negligible  in  view  of  the  uniform  tendency 
in  the  averages. 

The  greatest  average  relative  acceleration  effect  of  alcohol  appears 
in  the  rest-pulse,  where  it  is  5.3  per  cent  of  the  average  length  of  the 
pulse-cycles.1  After  standing  quietly  for  60"  subsequent  to  the  double 
genuflection  experiment,  the  average  accelerating  effect  of  alcohol  is 
least,  being  0.8  per  cent.  Between  these  two  extremes  the  order  of 
effect  is  4.1  per  cent  for  the  double  genuflections;  3.2  per  cent  for  the 
finger-movements;  3.1  per  cent  for  the  standing  rest  subsequent  to  the 
.rising;  2.4  per  cent  for  the  word-reactions;  and  2.2  per  cent  for  the 
rising.  The  average  effect  of  alcohol  in  all  these  experiments  is  3  per 
cent  of  the  normal  pulse-cycles. 

An  indication  of  the  relative  demands  of  the  various  experimental 
processes  on  the  pulse  is  shown  in  the  summary  of  the  normals  of  the 
day  for  each  of  the  experiments.  (See  table  43.) 

From  a  comparison  of  the  averages  of  table  43,  it  appears  that  the 
word-reactions  accelerate  the  pulse  1.1  per  cent;  finger-movements  9.3 
per  cent;  rising  21.6  per  cent;  two  double  genuflections,  18.5  per  cent; 
while  60"  after  rising  and  the  genuflections  the  acceleration  is  slightly 
less  than  11  per  cent  in  both  cases.  The  word-reaction  acceleration  is 
conspicuously  less  than  that  of  muscular  work;  it  appears  to  be  less 
also  than  the  acceleration  of  the  association  measurements.  These 
latter  values  are,  however,  not  strictly  comparable,  since  the  word- 
reaction  pulse  was  not  correlated  with  the  process  of  reacting,  as  was 
the  association  acceleration.  We  were  content  in  the  former  case  with 
the  average  pulse  of  the  experimental  process. 

The  amount  of  experimental  acceleration  bears  no  fixed  relation  to 
the  percentile  effect  of  alcohol  in  the  several  instances.  The  dispro- 
portion is  greatest  and  probably  also  the  most  significant  in  the  pulse- 
accleration  60"  after  the  more  violent  muscular  activities  of  rising  and 
the  double  genuflections.  We  would  not  imply  that  our  data  in  this 
respect  are  numerous  enough  or  sufficiently  followed  up  by  related 
experiments  to  be  conclusive,  but  taken  together  with  other  data  they 
form  part  of  the  cumulative  evidence  that  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the 
pulse-changes  incident  to  physical  as  well  as  to  mental  work  manifests 
itself  in  a  slowness  or  sluggishness  of  response.  In  the  association 

^he  percentile  average  relative  acceleration  of  the  pulse  effected  by  alcohol  is  calculated  from 
the  data  of  tables  42  and  43.  For  example:  the  normal  rest  retardation  of  the  pulse  during  the 
three  hours  experiment  averages  0.062"  (table  42);  the  alcohol  retardation  under  similar  circum- 
stances averages  0.0175",  giving  a  relative  acceleration  of  0.0445",  or  5.3  per  cent  of  the  average 
normal  of  the  day  pulse  during  rest  as  given  in  table  43. 


232 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


TABLE  43. — Summary  of  the  average  duration  of  the  pulse-cycles  during  each  of  the 
experimental  processes  for  the  first  period  or  normal  of  the  day. 

[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.] 


Suojpct. 

Rest. 

Word- 
reac- 
tion. 

Finger. 

Rifting. 

60" 
after 
rising. 

2  genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

60" 
after 
genu- 
flec- 
tions. 

ii 

1,087 

927 

980 

861 

1,030 

968 

962 

961 

898 

865 

985 

691 

942 

862 

958 

HI.... 

971 
888 
860 
760 
759 
687 

969 

"sss" 

765 

671 
506 

848 
884 
800 
585 

944 
815 
665 
611 

848 
784 
612 
580 

952 
886 
690 
676 

743 

680 

677 

798 

805 

772 

IV 

835 

820 

837 

786 

797 

780 

860 

809 

890 

814 

VI  .... 

881 
794 

870 

736 

617 

810 

778 

806 

787 

872 

867 
901 

788 

847 

778 

784 

875 
827 

738 
677 

689 
673 

766 

726 

858 
851 
814 
930 
717 

749 
747 

643 

582 
577 
602 
600 

683 
709 
695 
666 

638 
625 
629 
657 

690 
690 
715 
726 

634 

590 

VII  ... 

703 

626 

655 

675 

577 

795 

818 

728 
809 

730 
802 

IX 

735 

748 
700 
839 

820 
843 

644 
568 
565 
683 

655 
654 
731 

656 
562 
561 
698 

690 
662 
668 
743 

829 
1,001 
906 

1,061 

660 
774 
649 

782 
860 

719 
804 
663 

786 
719 
616 

786 

719 

602 

727 

906 

940 

771 

745 

832 

931 

808 

888 

870 

815 

809 

X.... 

817 

728 

669 

783 

746 

654 

836 

695 

708 

676 

746 

Average. 

801 
835 

799 
826 

"TCT" 

702 
675 

721 
745 

620 
681 

740 
744 

PULSE   DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  233 

experiments  this  was  shown  in  a  flattening  out  of  the  experimental 
change  after  alcohol.  In  the  pulse-acceleration  of  physical  work  the 
effect  of  alcohol  is  greater  immediately  after  the  exercise;  60"  later  it 
is  conspicuously  less. 

CAUSE  OF  THE  RELATIVE  ACCELERATION  OF  THE  PULSE  AFTER  ALCOHOL. 

While  a  positive  acceleration  of  the  pulse  after  the  ingestion  of  alcohol 
is  found  only  occasionally  in  the  succeeding  periods  of  our  experimental 
sessions,  relative  acceleration  is,  as  we  have  seen,  almost  universal.  By 
relative  acceleration  we  mean  a  more  rapid  pulse  than  occurs  at  homolo- 
gous periods  of  normal  days. 

It  seems  possible  that  some  part  of  the  discrepancies  in  the  literature 
which  we  cited  in  the  first  section  of  this  chapter,  with  respect  to  the 
effect  of  alcohol  on  the  pulse-rate  of  both  man  and  animals,  results 
from  a  confusion  between  positive  and  relative  acceleration.  In  the 
ordinary  course  of  investigation  it  requires  especial  and  insistent 
emphasis  on  normal  experiments  to  detect  relative  acceleration.  In 
operative  techniques  it  is  often  difficult  if  not  impracticable  to  secure 
homologous  normal  experiments  in  sufficient  number  for  the  detection 
of  relative  changes.  Even  when  practicable  it  often  seems  like  a 
waste  of  material.  But  where  the  alcohol  effects  are  small  and 
necessarity  superposed  on  normal  or  other  experimental  rhythms,  we 
believe  that  our  data  show  the  value  of  careful  comparative  treatment. 
To  indicate  a  probable  partial  cause  in  the  discrepancies  of  traditional 
data  we  believe  to  be  almost  as  useful  as  direct  data  in  our  attempt 
to  solve  the  alcohol  problem.  Other  and  more  significant  causes  of  dis- 
crepancy will  appear  in  the  following  discussion. 

In  our  experiments  at  least,  relative  acceleration  of  the  pulse  occurs 
in  greater  or  less  degree  in  all  subjects  as  a  part  of  the  effect  of  alcohol 
on  the  pulse  during  a  considerable  variety  of  mental  and  physical 
activities.  The  large  number  of  our  records  and  the  variety  of  the 
processes  permit  us  to  make  the  following  generalization:  A  regular 
effect  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  on  temperate  non-abstainers  during 
intermittent  mental  and  physical  activity  is  a  relative  acceleration  of 
the  pulse.  The  fact  is  quite  unequivocal  in  our  records,  but  it  consti- 
tutes a  clear  exception  to  our  other  experimental  results.  In  no  other 
case  have  we  found  consistent  increase  of  a  function  as  a  result  of  the 
ingestion  of  alcohol. 

The  cause  of  the  relative  acceleration  of  the  pulse  after  alcohol  thus 
becomes  a  question  of  considerable  theoretical  importance.  As  is  well 
known  there  are  two  reciprocating  mechanisms  that  determine  the  rate 
of  heart-contraction.  The  classical  paper  of  Reid  Hunt1  is  generally 
credited  with  the  demonstration  that  increased  pulse-rate  after  the 
beginning  of  muscular  activity  is  commonly  produced  by  a  depression 
of  the  heart  inhibitor  as  well  as  by  a  stimulation  of  the  accelerator. 

iHunt,  Am.  Joura.  Physiol.,  1899,  2,  p.  395. 


234         PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

Practically  it  might  make  no  difference  whether  a  given  acceleration 
was  produced  by  one  mechanism  or  the  other;  but  for  the  theory  of  the 
effect  of  alcohol  on  neuro-muscular  tissue  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
whether  or  not  the  autonomic  system  reacts  in  a  directly  opposite  way 
to  that  of  the  cerebro-spinal.  For  theoretical  reasons  we  are  under 
obligations  to  ask  the  bearing  of  our  data  on  the  question  whether  the 
pulse-acceleration  as  effected  by  alcohol  is  due  to  a  positive  stimulation 
of  the  cardiac  accelerator  or  to  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  cardiac  in- 
hibiting mechanism. 

In  the  conflicting  answers  of  traditional  experiments  to  the  funda- 
mental direction  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  human  pulse,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  there  is  scant  experimental  evidence  with  respect  to 
the  origin  of  that  effect.  Dixon,1  Reid  Hunt,2  and  Lauder  Brunton3 
hold  that  in  view  of  the  reflex  acceleration  of  the  heart  from  the  stimu- 
lation of  various  afferent  nerves,  the  acceleration  of  the  heart  by  alcohol 
is  a  reflex  of  the  vasomotor  center  to  the  local  irritation  of  the  mouth 
and  stomach.  But  apparently  the  evidence  for  this  view  is  indirect 
rather  than  direct.  Our  own  data  can  not  be  harmonized  with  this 
hypothesis.  If  the  relative  acceleration  were  a  reflex  to  local  irritation, 
it  should  be  most  pronounced  soon  after  the  in^estion  of  alcohol,  and 
should  gradually  decrease  as  the  alcohol  is  absorbed.  Our  association 
data,  on  the  contrary,  show  a  relatively  small  effect  in  the  first  half 
hour  and  a  gradually  increasing  relative  acceleration  up  to  the  end  of 
the  3-hour  experimental  session,  when  the  alcohol  by  absorption  and 
dilution  may  be  supposed  to  have  lost  a  large  part  or  alt  of  its  effect  on 
the  stomach-walls  as  a  local  irritant. 

Hascovec4  found  with  dogs  that  atropin,  which  specifically  paralyzes 
the  vagus  endings  in  the  heart,  increases  heart-rate  after  alcohol.  But 
even  that,  if  it  were  conclusively  demonstrated  for  humans,  would 
hardly  answer  our  question. 

The  observations  of  Reid  Hunt2  on  the  differential  effect  of  accel- 
erator and  inhibitor  mechanisms  on  the  relative  length  of  systole  and 
diastole  give  us  the  only  non-operative  technique  which  is  commonly 
accepted  as  proving  the  involvement  of  either  of  the  two  heart-regu- 
lating systems.  Hunt  found  that  after  stimulating  the  accelerator 
both  diastole  and  systole  decrease  together,  while  as  a  result  of  the  loss 
of  vagus  tone  the  chief  loss  is  in  diastole.  In  this  manner  he  proved 
that  chloral,  chloroform,  and  ether  affect  chiefly  the  cardio-inhibitory 
center,  and  seem  to  have  but  little  effect  on  the  accelerator  center. 
The  chief  difficulty  in  applying  the  method  of  Hunt  to  ordinary  sphyg- 
mograms  is  the  indistinctness  and  uncertainty  of  the  separation  between 
systole  and  diastole,  which  is  incident  to  the  interaction  of  the  natural 

'Dixon,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1907,  36,  p.  346. 

*Hunt,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1899,  2,  p.  395. 

'Brunton.  Therapeutics  of  the  Circulation,  London,  1914,  p.  178. 

«Haacovec,  Wiener  med.  Wehnach.,  1909,  59,  p.  457. 


PULSE   DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  235 

period  of  the  registering  system,  as  well  as  to  the  broadness  of  the 
dicrotic  notch. 

Fortunately  the  Dodge  temporal-pulse  recorder,  in  series  with  the 
string  galvanometer,  gave  sphygmograms  which  are  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  differentiation  of  systole  and  diastole.  Not  only  is  the  string 
galvanometer  an  aperiodic  recorder,  but  the  form  of  the  pulse-wave  is 
such  as  to  emphasize  the  beginning  of  systole  and  the  dicrotic  incisure. 
Without  going  into  the  details  of  the  construction  and  operation  of  the 
recorder,  let  us  recapitulate  its  principles.  The  string  galvanometer  is 
affected  by  minute  electric  currents  which  are  generated  in  a  telephone- 
receiver,  when  the  little  armature  which  rests  on  the  artery  moves 
towards  or  away  from  the  permanent  magnet  of  the  receiver.  The 
action  of  the  armature  on  the  field  of  the  receiver  and  consequently  on 
the  string  of  the  galvanometer  depends  on  the  speed  and  direction  of 
its  movement.  If  the  armature  is  at  rest  or  moves  only  slowly,  as  in 
the  systolic  plateau,  the  string  returns  to  its  zero-point,  from  which  it 
moves  in  the  opposite  direction  at  the  beginning  of  the  dicrotic  incisure. 
A  pulse-record  from  this  instrument  consists  chiefly  of  a  large  systolic 
spike  and  a  small  inverted  spike  at  the  dicrotic  notch,  as  represented 
by  a  specimen  record  in  figure  29  (opposite  page  171). 

The  only  limitations  to  the  accurate  reading  of  such  records  are 
their  length  and  the  care  of  the  reader;  the  points  are  clearly  enough 
marked  to  read  thousandths  of  a  second.  In  the  records  at  our  disposal, 
however,  the  speed  of  the  photographic  paper  was  adjusted  for  reading 
not  closer  than  0.005". 

Pursuant  to  the  theory  of  Hunt,  a  number  of  our  temporal-pulse 
records  were  re-read  with  reference  to  the  relative  length  of  systole  and 
diastole.  The  records  that  we  happened  to  read  first  were  those  of 
Subject  III  and  they  will  serve  very  well  as  an  illustration.  Three 
records  from  the  normal  rest  pulse  of  Subject  III  on  March  9  gave  the 
following  averages: 

5h  00™  p.  m.  Av.  systole  313  <r.  Av.  diastole  556  a. 
6  00  p.m.  Av.  systole  315  <r.  Av.  diastole  639 a. 
6  35  p.  m.  Av.  systole  301  <r.  Av.  diastole  781  a. 

In  this  normal  session  the  retardation  of  the  pulse,  amounting  to  42 
per  cent,  was  entirely  due  to  longer  diastole;  that  is,  according  to  the 
theory  of  Professor  Hunt,  the  retardation  was  chiefly  or  exclusively  due 
to  increased  action  of  the  heart  inhibitor,  probably  to  increased  vagus 
tone.  A  conspicuously  different  picture  is  presented  by  records  from 
the  alcohol  day,  February  9.  One  of  the  pre-alcohol  records,  record  1, 
showed  at  4h  15m  p.  m.,  average  systole  278<r;  average  diastole,  407 a, 
Twenty  minutes  after  dose  B  of  alcohol,  at 

5h  20m  p.  m.  Av.  systole  278«r.  Av.  diastole  515<r. 
6  30  p.m.  Av.  systole  300 <r.  A v.  diastole  543 a. 

That  is,  after  alcohol  an  increase  in  diastole  of  about  33  per  cent  corre- 
sponded with  an  increase  in  systole  of  about  8  per  cent,  This  appears 


236  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

to  show  some  depression  of  accelerator  tone,  but  in  nothing  like  the 
proportion  that  should  theoretically  obtain  in  a  pure  accelerator 
depression.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  normal  of  the  day  on  the  alcohol 
day  shows  a  rapid  pulse.  Even  at  6h30m  p.  m.  the  duration  of  systole 
is  slightly  less  than  on  the  normal  day.  The  failure  of  the  pulse  on  the 
alcohol  day  to  reach  the  retardation  of  the  normal  day  was  consequently 
due  solely  to  a  less  rapid  lengthening  of  diastole.  In  other  words,  after 
alcohol  the  normal  inhibitor  tone  was  less  completely  or  less  rapidly 
established.  Whatever  evidence  this  illustrative  case  may  give  seems 
to  indicate  that  the  relative  acceleration  effected  by  alcohol  is  due  to  a 
lessened  responsiveness  of  the  cardio-inhibitory  mechanism.  The 
argument,  however,  is  not  entirely  clear,  since  we  are  dealing  with  two 
variables  in  the  relative  acceleration:  (1)  the  alcohol  change,  and 
(2)  the  normal  relaxation  change.  In  view  of  the  consequent  ambi- 
guity of  interpretation,  we  hesitated  to  have  all  the  pulse-records  re-read 
to  find  the  relative  change  in  the  duration  of  systole  and  diastole.  It 
is  possible  that  this  ought  to  be  done,  but  we  believe  that  other  and 
less  ambiguous  data  will  be  more  convincing. 

Even  in  the  association-pulse  there  were  some  indications  that  the 
effect  of  alcohol  was  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  cardio-inhibitory  mech- 
anism. First,  it  will  be  remembered  that  there  was  little  or  no  positive 
acceleration  of  the  pulse  after  alcohol.  Our  "relative  acceleration"  is 
really  a  failure  of  the  pulse  to  develop  its  normal  retardation.  That 
seems  less  like  the  effect  of  positive  stimulation  than  it  does  like  a  partial 
paralysis  of  the  depressor.  Secondly,  we  noted  that  alcohol  flattened 
out  the  response  of  the  pulse  to  the  association  process.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  association  rhythm  was  completely  changed  after 
dose  B,  in  Subject  VII  (see  fig.  31).  Now,  it  seems  to  be  well  estab- 
lished that  rapid  adjustments  of  the  pulse-rate  to  varying  demands  of 
work  and  rest  are  effected  by  the  inhibitor  (Hunt,1  Aulo2).  The  accel- 
erator reacts  more  slowly,  with  a  latency  of  the  order  of  10",  when  it 
reacts  at  all.  Since  the  entire  association  cycle  occupied  only  10",  the 
post-stimulation  change  in  the  association  pulse  can  not  be  a  phenome- 
non of  the  slow-acting  accelerator,  but  must  on  the  contrary  be  con- 
ditioned by  the  cardio-inhibitor  mechanism.  The  elimination  of  the 
post-stimulation  pulse-change  after  alcohol  must  consequently  be  due 
to  a  decreased  responsiveness  of  the  cardio-inhibitor  mechanism. 

It  was  these  considerations  of  the  different  latencies  of  the  accelerator 
and  depressor  mechanisms  that  gave  special  significance  to  a  phenome- 
non that  was  incidentally  observed  during  the  re-reading  of  the  records 
for  the  relative  length  of  systole  and  diastole.  It  was  observed  that  on 
the  normal  day  of  Subject  III,  the  mean  variation  of  the  diastolic  pulse- 
phases  was  approximately  10  per  cent  of  the  total  length  of  diastole. 


t,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol..  1899.  2,  p.  395. 
*Aulo.  Skand.  Archiv  f.  Physiol..  1911.  25.  p.  347. 


PULSE   DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK. 


237 


Av.  diastole  556<r;  M.  V.  63<r.      Av.  diastole  639<r;  M.  V.  68<r.      Av.  diastole  781a;  M.  V.  77 <r. 

Similarly  the  normal  of  the  day  on  the  alcohol  day  showed  about  the 
same  percentile  mean  variation : 

Av.  diastole  407 <r;  M.  V.  42 <r. 

After  alcohol,  however,  the  mean  variation  dropped  to  5  per  cent 
and  less: 

Av.  diastole  514or;  M.  V.  23<r.          Av.  diastole  543<r;  M.  V.  20a. 

TABLE  44. — Average  mean  variations  of  the  pulse-cycles  under  varying  conditions. 
[Values  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.) 


Conditions. 

Subject 
II. 

Subject 
III. 

Subject 
IV. 

Subject 
VI. 

Subject 
VII. 

Subject 
IX. 

Subject 
X. 

Aver- 
age. 

Rest: 
Normal  

Dose  A 

41 
46 

32 
52 

58 

18 
27 

25 

66 
49 
34 
34 

82 
50 
47 
39 

32 
42 

31 

47 

37 
32 
30 

69 
40 
33 
62 

25 
30 
30 
28 
17 
15 
19 
32 
30 

34 

28 
21 

49 

33 
32 
26 

25 
17 
20 
23 

24 

35 

24 

34 
31 
40 
53 

47 
47 
41 
36 
29 
39 
44 
36 
33 

68 


37 
39 

45 
46 

19 
15 

23 
9 

24 



19 

31 
32 

42 
26 

11 
13 

12 
10 

10 
12 

13 
13 

35 

21 
35 

41 
32 

46 

48 
40 

54 
44 

29 
19 

55 
36 

29 
25 

38 
57 

57 

40 
38 
41 
46 

44 
61 
....... 

33 

77 

125 

184 

Dose  B   

Word-reaction  : 
Normal  

Alcohol 

Finger-movements  : 
Normal  

Dose  A  
Dose  B 

49 

37 
29 

62 
15 

20 
52 

H31) 

41 
43 

40 

90 
19 
12 

23 
19 
16 
16 

12 
23 

65 
43 

63 
21 
17 
14 

28 

18 
17 
22 

Rising: 
Normal  

Alcohol 

60"  after  rising: 
Normal  
Alcohol  

2  genuflections: 

H40) 

38 
24 
49 
34 
14 

31 
23 
24 
25 
14 

34 
30 

231 
81 

59 
22 

18 

io 

39 
25 
22 

77 
30 

17 
25 
25 
29 
37 

Alcohol 

60"  after  2  genuflections: 

56 

27 

40 

28 





Bracketed  normal  mean  variation: 
quently  excluded  from  the  averages. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


This  change  was  so  marked  and  consistent  in  this  subject,  and  in 
several  others  that  were  sampled,  that  we  reviewed  the  whole  pulse  data 
to  collect  the  mean  variations  of  the  pulse-cycles  of  each  record.  The 
pulse-changes  that  commonly  occur  within  the  limits  of  our  12"  records 
are  on  the  one  hand  the  respiration  rhythms,  and  on  the  other  hand 
such  arrhythmic  changes  as  are  produced  by  the  experimental  processes. 
In  both  cases  the  long  cardio-accelerator  latency  obviously  precludes 
the  accelerator  mechanism  from  participation  in  these  short  rhythmic 
and  arrhythmic  changes  in  the  pulse  frequency.  Consistent  change  in 
the  mean  variation  of  the  pulse  or  its  absence  seemed  to  us  to  be  a  most 
important  indicator  of  the  responsiveness  of  the  cardio-inhibitor 
mechanism.  The  relevant  data  are  collected  in  table  44  and  sum- 
marized with  respect  to  the  influence  of  alcohol  in  table  45. 

TABLE  45. — Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  mean  variation  of  the  pulse-cycle*. 


Condition. 

Effect  of  alcohol  as  shown 
by  the  mean  variation. 

Percentage 
effect. 

Rest: 
Dose  A  
Dose  B  
Word-reaction  
Finger-movements  : 
Dose  A  

c 

Decreased  from  35 
Decreased  from  35 
Decreased  from  4  1 

Increased  from  46 
Decreased  from  46 
Decreased  from  54 
Decreased  from  29 
Decreased  from  55 
Decreased  from  29 

r             a- 
.5  to  21.  5 
.5       35.4 
32 

48 
40 
44 
19 
36 
25 



p.  Ct. 

40 
0 
22 

-  4 
13 
18 
33 
35 
13 
19 

Dose  B  
Rising  
60"  after  rising  
Genuflections  
60"  after  genuflections.  .  .  . 
Average  decrease  .  .  . 

Notwithstanding  large  individual  variations,  and  considerable  vari- 
ability in  records  from  the  same  individual,  which  follow  inevitably 
from  the  varying  conditions  under  which  the  records  were  taken,  the 
average  changes,  which  alone  are  significant,  indicate  a  persistent 
tendency  for  alcohol  to  diminish  the  mean  variation  of  the  pulse-cycles 
within  the  limits  of  our  "sample"  records.  In  only  one  instance, 
finger-movements  after  dose  A,  is  the  average  mean  variation  larger 
after  alcohol  than  on  the  normal  days,  and  in  this  case  the  percentile 
change  is  conspicuously  small.  The  average  decrease  in  the  mean 
variation  of  the  pulse-cycles  after  alcohol  is  19  per  cent.  It  should  be 
noted  that  these  percentages  are  based  on  the  entire  pulse-cycle,  and 
not  on  the  diastole,  as  in  the  discussion  of  the  relative  changes  in  systole 
and  diastole  of  Subject  III. 

It  may  be  held  that  the  smaller  mean  variation  after  alcohol  is  due 
to  the  relative  acceleration  of  the  pulse  after  alcohol.  This  could  not 
explain  it.  The  changes  in  mean  variation  are  absolute,  not  relative, 
and  occur  even  in  those  cases  in  which  there  is  no  absolute  acceleration. 
Moreover,  the  average  acceleration  was  only  3  per  cent  (p.  231),  while 
the  average  decreased  mean  variation  is  19  per  cent.  The  decreased 


PULSE    DURING    MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  239 

mean  variation  of  the  pulse-cycles  after  alcohol  must  consequently 
he  regarded  as  a  real  effect  of  alcohol. 

The  bearing  of  this  fact  on  the  evidence  for  alcoholic  partial  paralysis 
of  the  heart  inhibitory  mechanism  depends  on  the  previously  discussed 
difference  between  the  latency  of  inhibitor  and  accelerator.  Let  us 
repeat:  Accelerator  latency  is  10"  and  over;  inhibitor  latency  is  less 
than  1".  Consequently  the  first  response  of  the  heart  to  increased 
muscular  activity  with  a  latency  of  less  than  one  pulse-cycle  is  not  an 
accelerator  impulse,  but  a  release  of  the  heart  from  the  inhibitory 
influence  of  the  vasomotor  centers.  Similarly,  normal  respiratory 
pulse-rhythms  follow  expiration  and  inspiration  within  one  pulse-cycle. 
Inspiration,  the  active  phase  of  respiration,  accelerates  the  heart  with 
a  latent  time  of  less  than  1".  Expiration  retards  the  pulse  with  a 
similar  latent  time.  Such  latency  corresponds  with  the  known  latency 
characteristic  of  the  vagus,  and  fixes  the  respiratory  rhythm  as  a 
function  of  the  inhibitory  mechanism.  The  accelerator  latency  of  10" 
absolutely  precludes  its  participation  in  the  pulse-changes  correspond- 
ing to  our  experimental  processes,  or  to  the  respiratory  rhythms  of  rest. 
The  flattening  out  of  the  respiratory  and  experimental  rhythms  after 
alcohol  is  consequently  due  to  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  inhibitor. 

It  might  be  objected  that  some  other  influences  could  produce  the 
same  effect,  as,  for  example,  decreased  depth  of  respiration.  Such  a 
change  in  the  respiration  would  be  the  exact  opposite  of  that  found  by 
Wilmanns1  and  Weissenfeld.2  Unfortunately,  our  respiratory  data 
are  too  few  to  give  us  any  clue  to  the  situation.  But  even  if  it  were 
proved  to  exist,  such  a  far-reaching  flattening-out  of  respiration  would 
be  as  significant  as  the  changes  in  the  pulse.  Instead  of  one  being 
referred  to  the  other,  doubtless  both  would  have  to  be  referred  to  a 
common  cause.  Moreover,  the  pulse-changes  after  experimental  move- 
ments and  other  definite  amounts  of  physical  activity  give  us  a  clear 
guarantee  that  we  are  not  dealing  with  a  mere  accident  of  modified 
respiration.  The  pulse-changes  at  the  beginning  of  physical  work  have 
a  latency  that  shows  them  to  be  due  to  changes  in  the  vagus  tone.  And 
these  work  accelerations  suffer  even  greater  loss  after  the  ingestion  of 
alcohol  than  the  respiratory  rhythm  of  rest. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  inhibitor  paralysis  as  affected  by  30  and 
45  c.c.  of  alcohol  is  not  complete,  but  only  partial.  Even  after  45  c.c. 
of  alcohol,  increased  activity  still  produced  a  faster  pulse.  This  is  in 
line  with  other  experimental  facts.  Gutnikow3  showed  that  the  vagus 
could  be  stimulated  by  electricity  in  alcoholic  narcosis;  but  in  our 
experiments  the  accelerating  effect  of  muscular  action  is  less  after 
alcohol,  and  the  decreased  mean  variation  indicates  that  its  beginning 
is  more  sluggish.  The  whole  picture  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the 

Wilmanns,  Archiv  f.  d.  gea.  Physiol.,  1897,  66,  p.  167. 
*Weissenfeld,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1898,  71,  p.  60. 
*Gutnikow,  Zeitschr.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1892,  21,  p.  168. 


240          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

depressor  corresponds  point  for  point  with  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the 
reflex  mechanisms  of  the  cord  and  basal  ganglia.  The  extent  of  the 
reflex  response  was  lessened  and  the  latent  time  was  lengthened.  Hence 
it  should  not  surprise  us  that  the  cardio-inhibitory  reflexes  of  the  medulla 
show  similar  effects  of  alcohol. 

The  question  as  to  why  alcohol  in  moderate  doses  acts  selectively  on 
the  heart  inhibitor  rather  than  on  the  accelerator  is  one  that  properly 
belongs  to  general  physiology  rather  than  to  this  investigation.  It 
may  be  noted,  however,  that  alcohol  in  this  respect,  as  in  others,  appears 
to  follow  its  pharmacological  relatives,  ether  and  chloroform  (Hunt1). 
Moreover,  it  seems  that  the  inhibitor  is  in  general  more  susceptible  to 
disturbing  influences  than  the  accelerator.  It  acts  quicker  and  re- 
sponds to  less  vigorous  stimuli  (Hunt,1  Aulo,2  Krogh  and  Lindhard3). 
But  we  expressly  limit  our  generalizations  as  to  the  effect  of  alcohol  on 
pulse  frequency  to  the  dosage  and  other  conditions  of  our  experiments. 
There  is,  indeed,  some  probability  that  the  curve  which  represents  a 
direct  proportion  between  the  dose  and  pulse  frequency  for  30  and  45 
c.c.  would  follow  the  same  direction  above  and  below  these  limits. 
But  our  actual  data  are  limited  to  our  two  doses;  and  theoretically 
there  is  no  guarantee  that  a  cusp  in  the  curve  or  a  change  in  its  direc- 
tion might  not  occur  at  any  point.  In  fact,  Dixon4  definitely  voices  a 
common  conviction  that  in  the  qualitative  pulse-changes  produced  by 
different  doses,  alcohol  is  unique.  Moreover,  if  alcohol  is  a  general 
depressant,  as  our  evidence  shows,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not 
also  partially  paralyze  the  cardio-accelerator  as  well  as  the  cardio- 
inhibitor  mechanism.  Indeed  certain  of  our  results,  viz,  the  relatively 
large  loss  in  rhythmic,  respiratory,  and  experimental  changes  in  the 
pulse  variability,  as  compared  with  the  slight  acceleration  changes, 
suggest  that  the  effects  of  a  decreased  irritability  of  the  cardio-inhibitory 
center  are  contaminated,  even  in  our  data,  by  a  decreased  accelerator 
tone. 

That  under  our  experimental  circumstances  the  inhibitor  mechanism 
suffers  the  greater  depression  seems  to  be  clear  from  our  data.  But 
different  circumstances  might  supposedly  alter  the  balance  of  the 
effects  in  the  two  systems  so  as  to  produce  no  change  at  all  in  the 
pulse-rate  or  even  to  produce  a  pulse  retardation  instead  of  an  accel- 
eration after  alcohol.  Something  of  that  sort  apparently  happened 
in  the  case  of  Subject  IV  in  the  association-pulse  after  dose  B.  The 
commonly  accepted  doctrine  that  alcohol  retards  the  pulse  of  fever 
patients  may  be  another  case  to  the  point.  Mosso  and  Galeotti5 
remarked  the  similarity  of  the  alcohol  pulse  to  the  fever  pulse.  It 
seems  plausible  that  if  the  cardio-inhibitor  center  has  already  been 
notably  depressed  before  the  alcohol  is  given,  its  further  depression 

'Hunt,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1899,  2,  p.  395. 

*Aulo,  Skand.  Archiv  f.  Physiol.,  1911,  25,  p.  347. 

'Krogh  and  Lindhard,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1913,  47,  p.  120  (cap.). 

«Dixon,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1907,  35,  p.  346. 

•Mosso  and  Galeotti,  Lab.  Sci.  Int.  du  Mont  Rosa,  1903.     (Published  1904.) 


PULSE   DURING   MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL   WORK.  241 

might  be  relatively  slow,  thus  bringing  into  prominence  a  coincident 
depression  of  the  accelerator.  Further  support  for  this  general  rela- 
tionship appears  in  the  antagonism  between  atropin  and  alcohol 
(Hascovec) .  Moreover,  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  pulse-rate  has  been 
found  to  persist  after  the  vagi  are  cut  (Hascovec1  and  Dixon2).  Such 
an  event  would  be  inexplicable  if  the  inhibitor  center  alone  were  affected. 
We  suggest  that  in  this  probable  effect  of  alcohol  on  both  antagonistic 
mechanisms,  combined  with  the  failure  to  differentiate  absolute  and 
relative  acceleration,  there  is  ample  opportunity  for  all  the  various 
experimental  results  that  were  noted  from  the  alcoholic  tradition  in 
the  first  part  of  this  chapter.  Reversal  of  effect  on  the  pulse-rate 
would  seem  to  be  theoretically  probable,  if  ether  or  chloroform  had 
been  administered  previous  to  alcohol  or  hi  febrile  cases. 

The  contention  of  Cushny3  that  the  pulse-acceleration  effected  by 
alcohol  is  due  to  increased  muscular  activity,  and  not  to  any  direct 
action  on  the  regulating  mechanisms,  is  not  supported  by  our  data. 
One  might  have  criticised  any  data  that  were  obtained  during  mental 
experiments  alone,  on  the  ground  that  while  the  subjects  seemed  to 
be  quieter  after  alcohol  than  on  normal  days,  there  might  have  been 
increased  muscular  activity  that  we  did  not  notice.  The  fact  that 
similar  changes  accompany  definite  physical  tasks  leaves  such  an  objec- 
tion improbable.  We  have  no  disproof,  however,  of  the  hypothesis  that 
without  any  mental  or  physical  activity  the  pulse-rate  might  remain 
unchanged.  We  would  again  insist  that  the  changes  in  the  pulse-rate 
herein  described  belong  to  experimental  conditions  of  moderate  mental 
or  physical  activity.  They  should  not  be  uncritically  transferred  either 
to  intense  activity  or  to  complete  relaxation,  for  reasons  that  we  have 
already  discussed.  But  whether  the  relative  acceleration  results  or 
not,  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  cardio-inhibitory  center  ought  to  be 
demonstrable  wherever  it  occurs  by  a  depression  of  the  normal  rhythms. 

In  view  of  the  large  amount  of  our  pulse  data,  and  the  thoroughness 
with  which  it  was  read  and  elaborated,  we  believe  that  the  accelerating 
tendency  of  alcohol  on  the  pulse-rate  of  normal  human  subjects,  during 
moderate  mental  and  physical  activity,  may  be  regarded  as  certain. 
We  also  believe  that  the  evidence  is  sufficient  to  show  that  such  relative 
acceleration  must  be  referred  to  a  partial  paralysis  of  the  cardio- 
inhibitor  centers. 

But  whether  these  generalizations  be  accepted  or  not,  the  experi- 
mental fact  remains  that  generally  decreased  irritability  of  a  consider- 
able number  of  related  neuro-muscular  processes  consequent  to  the 
ingestion  of  alcohol  was  regularly  accompanied  by  a  relative  accelera- 
tion of  the  pulse-rate.  These  two  facts  taken  together  we  must  regard 
as  a  clear  indication  of  decreased  organic  efficiency  as  a  result  of  mod- 
erate doses  of  alcohol. 

Hascovec,  Wiener  med.  Wchnsch.,  1909,  59,  p.  457. 
"Dixon,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1907,  35,  p.  346. 
'Cushny,  Pharmacology,  Philadelphia,  1910. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SUMMARIES  AND  CORRELATIONS. 
DIFFERENTIAL  INCIDENCE  OF  THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

The  first  attempt  to  measure  the  relative  incidence  of  the  effect  of 
alcohol  on  various  fundamental  mental  processes  is  the  classical  work  of 
Kraepelin.1  In  this  task  he  was  a  pioneer.  Since  his  work  there  have 
been  numberless  special  investigations  of  the  action  of  alcohol  on  various 
mental  operations,  but  there  have  been  no  systematic  groups  of  experi- 
ments that  permitted  an  inference  as  to  the  relative  incidence  of  the 
alcohol  effect. 

The  well-known  conclusions  of  Kraepelin  may  be  condensed  as 
follows :  All  doses  of  alcohol  depress  the  intellectual  processes  of  appre- 
hension, memory,  and  judgment.  Small  doses  facilitate  motor  dis- 
charge at  first  and  subsequently  depress  it.  Large  doses  depress  both 
intellectual  and  motor  processes  from  the  first.  The  nature  and  amount 
of  the  effects  depend  on  the  characteristics  of  the  individual  and  on  his 
condition. 

Certain  apparent  discrepancies  between  our  results  and  his  led  us 
to  a  careful  review  of  Kraepelin's  original  arguments.  In  that  review 
two  factors  challenged  our  attention,  viz,  (1)  the  neural  complexity  of 
all  his  experimental  processes,  and  (2)  the  unsatisfactoriness  of  some 
of  his  analyses  as  judged  by  present  standards.  For  example:  As 
experimenter  and  as  theorist,  Kraepelin  worked  under  the  tradition  of 
a  complete  differentiation  of  the  sensory  and  motor  factors  in  reaction. 
Choice  and  discrimination  were  for  him  real  factors  hi  the  reactions 
called  by  these  respective  names.  It  is  now  generally  realized,  however, 
that  choice  is  not  discoverable  in  the  consciousness  that  accompanies 
the  practiced  so-called  choice  reaction,  and  that  the  discrimination 
reaction  is  complicated  by  notable  inhibitory  tendencies  that  are  in 
their  nature  motor  rather  than  discriminatory.  But  from  his  stand- 
point, Kraepelin  was  able  to  say  without  hesitation  that  the  difference 
between  the  results  of  the  discrimination  reaction  and  those  of  the 
simple  reaction  can  be  referred  only  to  the  new  factor  which  it  was 
intended  to  introduce  into  the  process,  viz,  the  discrimination.  Conse- 
quently, since  the  "  discrimination  "  appears  to  be  lengthened  by  alcohol, 
he  holds  that  the  intellectual  factor  in  reaction  processes  is  paralyzed 
by  alcohol.  Similarly,  since  the  intentionally  new  factor  in  the  choice 
reaction  is  primarily  a  motor  process,  and  since  the  choice  reactions 
are  shorter  in  his  experiments  after  alcohol,  he  held  that  the  discharge 
of  motor  processes  is  facilitated  by  moderate  doses  of  alcohol.  Con- 

1Kraepelin,  Wundt's  Phil.  Studien,  I,  1883,  p.  573.  Ueber  die  Beeinflussung  einfacher 
psychischer  Vorgange  durch  einige  Arxneimittel.  Jena,  1892. 

242 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  243 

tributary  evidence  for  these  conclusions  he  found  in  his  other  experi- 
ments, as  well  as  in  acute  alcoholic  intoxication,  and  in  the  interrelation 
between  the  effects  of  alcohol  and  disease  processes,  particularly  in 
relation  with  epilepsy. 

The  conception  of  all  sensory  and  motor  processes  as  a  resultant  of 
complex  stimulating  and  inhibiting  factors  was  not  as  well  established 
in  the  psychophysiological  tradition  when  Kraepelin  did  his  experi- 
mental work  and  made  his  first  analyses,  as  it  is  at  present.  His  own 
analysis  of  the  work  curve,  for  example,  was  a  later  development. 
While  we  can  no  longer  regard  discrimination  and  choice  as  adequately 
describing  the  characteristics  of  the  "discrimination"  and  "choice" 
reactions,  we  have  come  to  regard  the  conditions  of  neural  processes 
on  a  scheme  of  reciprocating  mechanisms,  as  a  complex  of  exciting  and 
controlling  tendencies,  with  great  variability  of  the  adequacy  and 
completeness  of  the  controls. 

In  contrast  to  the  experimental  processes  of  the  Kraepelin  series,  our 
experiments  were  planned  expressly  to  test  the  conditions  of  the  nervous 
system  at  widely  different  levels  in  the  simplest  practicable  processes. 
The  question  of  the  incidence  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  different 
levels  is  not  merely  an  effort  to  explain  our  data.  It  was  a  direct 
problem  from  the  beginning  of  our  investigation  and  served  as  one  of 
the  principles  that  determined  the  choice  of  measurable  processes.1 
But,  even  more  than  the  direct  measurement  of  the  effects  of  alcohol 
on  the  various  processes,  we  believe  that  their  interrelations  and 
experimental  analyses  give  us  the  conditions  for  a  more  definite  answer 
to  the  problem  of  the  incidence  of  the  effects  of  alcohol  within  the 
physiological  schema  of  nervous  action  than  could  have  been  given  by 
a  less  systematically  organized  group  of  processes. 

The  relevant  data  with  respect  to  the  incidence  of  the  effect  of  alcohol 
are  collected  in  table  46,  arranged  in  the  order  of  previous  discussion. 
From  this  table  it  appears  that  the  most  marked  effects  of  alcohol  are 
shown  in  the  knee-jerk,  where  alcohol  increased  the  average  latent 
time  10  per  cent  and  decreased  the  average  extent  of  muscle-thickening 
46  per  cent.  This  extreme  effect,  it  will  be  remembered,  made  it 
impracticable  to  measure  the  knee-jerk  of  several  subjects  after  the 
larger  dose  (dose  B). 

The  second  largest  effect  is  produced  in  the  lid-reflex,  which  shows 
an  average  increased  latency  of  7  per  cent  and  decreased  extent  of 
movement  of  19  per  cent.  These  changes  vary  directly  with  the  dose 
of  alcohol,  and  must  satisfy  the  most  exacting  demands  of  reliability. 
The  change  would  be  much  larger,  save  for  the  two  exceptional  cases  of 
Subjects  X  and  IV  whose  lid  reflexes  were  small  in  amplitude  by  reason 
of  inheritance,  or  training,  or  both.  In  explanation  of  these  two  cases, 

lSee  Psychological  Program,  p.  273,  (2)  and  (3). 


244 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


in  view  of  the  general  effects  of  alcohol,  and  in  view  of  the  specific 
evidence  that  in  the  pulse  apparent  facilitation  in  response  to  alcohol 
was  proved  to  result  from  a  paralysis  of  inhibitors,  the  most  practical 
hypothesis  is,  as  we  have  seen,  that  alcohol  diminished  the  controlling 
influence  of  the  particularly  prominent  inhibiting  mechanism. 

The  third  largest  change  was  produced  in  the  sensory  threshold  for 
electrical  stimulation.     The  threshold  was  raised  an  average  of  14 

TABLE  46. — Summary  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  various  experimental  processes  in  percentUes.* 


Reflexes. 

!?««. 

Coordina- 
*•:   ~ 

Subject. 

Patellar. 

Lid. 

Reactions. 

Mem- 
ory. 

rar- 
adic 

thresh- 
ti 

nons. 

| 

old. 

Fin- 

- 

R. 

H. 

R. 

H. 

Eye. 

Word. 

ger. 

Eye. 

Normal  subjects: 

II  

A 

-20 

+165 

0 

+  4 

-   1 

+  1      -19 

+  5 

-    7 

B 

1 

+50 

-14 

-17 

-46 

+10 

-29 

Ill 

A 

+105 

-19 

+20 

+  6      -   2 

-12 

+  5 

+  8 

B 

-23 

+  14 

-  3 

0 

i    _   i 

-  6 

-   2 

IV  

A 

-19 

....  '.\    -30 

+  6 

B 

-  9 

+  68 

+  Y 

-43 

-12 

-  4 

|    -21 

+  6 

-16 

VI 

A 

o 

-   13 

+  4 

+  18 

+  9 

+  5 

+  9 

-48 

+15 

B 

+  6  !  -  37 

_    i 

+  19 

-   6 

-  5 

-  7 

+  6 

VII. 

A 

-  7    +110 

-19 

+26 

+  11 

i 

-13 

-20 

+11 

-  3 

B 

—  14 

+34 

—   9 

_  5 

+  8 

+  11 

—  10 

IX 

A 

-17 

-   14 

-14 

+38 

+  15 

+  5 

-  4 

+  11 

+20 

-10 

» 

-20 

+  47 

-19 

+97 

-49 

-   6 

+  19 

+26 

-35 

X  

A 

+  13 

-42 

-15 

-  6 

+  7 

-32 

-   1 

—      1 

Average  .... 

A 

'.'.'.'.'.'.     -  6 

+  11 

+  5 

0 

0  i    -21 

+  9 

-  3 

B 

-  9 

+28 

-16 

-  6 

I    -  8 

+  10 

-19 

Total  aver- 

age   

-10 

+  46 

-  7 

+19 

-  5 

-  3 

-14 

+  9 

-11 

Psychopathic  sub- 

jects: 

XI  

A 

-  5 

+  31 

-46 

+85 

-  2 

-  l 

—    l 

-12 

+  6 

-11 

XII  

A 

+  7 

+  36 

-  3 

-  9 

+15 

-  l 

+16 

-13 

-  9 

-15 

XIV  

A 

-   1 

+     2 

-  6 

-11 

+  2 

+  4 

C) 

-11 

-  6 

O 

Average  .  .  . 

0 

+  23 

-12 

+22 

+  5 

+  1 

+  7 

-12 

-  3 

-13 

'The  plus  and  minus  signs  in  this  table  must  be  taken  in  the  light  of  their  origin  on  the  basis 
of  our  statistical  conventions.  We  express  the  effect  of  alcohol  throughout  this  investigation  by 
the  formula  "Effect  of  alcohol  equals  the  average  difference  on  alcohol  days  minus  the  average 
difference  on  normal  days"  (see  page  29).  That  is,  if  the  effect  of  alcohol  has  a  plus  sign,  then 
the  average  difference  between  the  normal  of  the  day  and  subsequent  periods  on  alcohol  daj's  is 
greater  than  the  average  difference  on  normal  days,  i.  e.,  the  alcohol  tended  to  reduce  the  meas- 
urements. 

'Records  too  few  for  inclusion  but  in  the  same  direction  as  the  average. 

per  cent,  but  this  effect  is  irregularly  distributed  between  doses  A  and 
B,  showing  the  interaction  of  some  new  factor  with  the  higher  dose. 
As  we  have  already  seen,  this  is  partially  if  not  wholly  accounted  for 
by  a  modified  critical  demand  of  the  subject. 

Fourth  in  extent  is  the  effect  on  coordinated  movements  as  seen  in 
the  speed  of  the  eye-movements,  which  average  11  per  cent  slower 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  245 

under  alcohol.  The  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  eye-movements  varies 
directly  with  the  size  of  the  dose. 

A  close  fifth  is  the  speed  of  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  finger,  which 
is  decreased  by  an  average  of  9  per  cent. 

Sixth  and  seventh  in  the  list  are  the  changes  in  the  reaction-time  of 
the  eye  and  speech  organs,  an  increase  in  the  latent  time  of  5  and  3 
per  cent  respectively. 

Finally,  there  is  practically  no  change  at  all  in  the  memory.  But  our 
memory  experiments  did  not  include  dose  B. 

The  natural  grouping  of  the  processes  with  respect  to  the  magnitude 
of  the  percentile  effects  of  alcohol,  viz,  first,  the  two  reflexes;  second, 
the  sensory  threshold;  third,  the  two  motor  coordinations;  fourth,  the 
two  elaborated  reactions;  and  fifth,  the  memory,  is  too  consistent  to  be 
accidental.  It  is  confirmatory  evidence  of  the  reliability  of  our  results, 
that  similar  processes  yield  similar  results. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  5  of  the  6  processes,  in  which  there  are  com- 
parable data,  show  a  greater  average  effect  of  the  larger  dose.  The 
one  exception  is  in  the  sensory  threshold,  where,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
results  are  probably  complicated  by  the  interaction  of  at  least  two 
different  processes. 

The  group  of  psychopathic  or  reformed  alcoholic  subjects  is  too 
small  and  the  experimental  days  are  too  few  to  give  data  of  similar 
reliability  to  that  of  the  normal  subjects.  On  the  whole,  however,  it 
may  be  regarded  as  probable  that  the  general  effect  of  dose  A  on  the 
reformed  alcoholic  is  not  fundamentally  different  from  that  on  normals. 
The  average  effect  on  the  lid-reflex  is  greater  than  in  normals.  The 
change  in  the  eye-reaction  and  word-reaction  is  identical  with  that  of 
normals  for  dose  A.  The  effect  on  the  Faradic  threshold  is  consistent, 
and  while  less  than  the  effect  of  dose  A  on  normals,  is  more  than  that  of 
dose  B.  The  effect  on  the  finger-movements  is  reversed,  but  the  effect 
on  the  eye-movements  in  the  two  cases  in  which  the  data  are  complete 
is  relatively  large  and  in  the  same  direction.  As  we  shall  see  later,  the 
eye-movements  are  of  especial  significance.  The  average  improvement 
of  the  eye-reaction  after  dose  A  is  similar  to  that  of  normal  subjects. 
It  is  probable  that  the  improvement  has  a  similar  basis  in  the  two 
groups.  The  most  pronounced  difference  between  the  normal  and  the 
psychopathic  subjects  appears  in  the  case  of  the  finger-movements. 
For  this  difference  we  have  no  satisfactory  explanation. 

Taken  altogether,  our  data  leave  no  doubt  that  alcohol  shows  a  real 
difference  of  incidence  in  its  effects  on  different  levels  of  the  nervous 
system  of  both  normal  and  psychopathic  subjects.  The  lower  centers 
are  depressed  most  and  the  highest  least.  This  is  entirely  contrary  to 
our  traditions.  But  as  Professor  Hunt  remarked  in  an  informal  dis- 
cussion of  these  results:  "If  alcohol  had  selectively  narcotized  the 


246          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

higher  centers  it  would  have  been  used  as  an  anaesthetic  centuries  ago.'' 
It  can  not  be  an  experimental  accident  that  all  the  cerebral  reaction 
processes,  eye-reaction,  word-reaction,  memory,  and  the  free-associ- 
ation experiments  are  in  a  class  by  themselves  with  respect  to  the  small 
percentile  change  effected  by  moderate  doses  of  alcohol.  In  direct 
contradiction  to  the  Kraepelin  contention  that  motor  discharge  is 
facilitated  by  alcohol,  are  the  regular  and  self-consistent  data  that  the 
simplest  possible  movements  are  much  more  seriously  depressed  by 
alcohol  than  the  more  distinctly  intellectual  processes.  Kraepelin's 
sensory-motor  schema  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  arose  from  a  questionable 
interpretation  of  the  complex  reaction  forms.  It  proves  utterly  inade- 
quate for  the  facts.  We  believe  that  the  incidence  of  alcohol  on  the 
nervous  system  is  a  much  more  complex  problem  than  that  simple 
schema  would  indicate. 

In  view  of  the  self-consistent  differences  of  the  effect  on  the  different 
levels,  we  must  ask  whether  alcohol  has  a  specific  action  at  these  dif- 
ferent levels,  or  whether  the  differences  in  its  action  are  due  to  a 
differential  organization  of  the  processes.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
greatest  and  most  persistent  change  consequent  to  alcohol  is  in  the 
processes  which  are  most  completely  withdrawn  from  voluntary  rein- 
forcement and  voluntary  control.  The  higher  centers  alone  show 
capacity  for  autogenic  reinforcement.  In  spite  of  sleepiness,  pain,  or 
sensory  distraction,  and  even  narcosis,  one  can  reestablish  the  normal 
controls  on  occasion,  and  make  a  fair  showing,  especially  when  the 
results  would  be  serious  if  one  let  oneself  go.  Indeed,  there  is  a  wide- 
spread popular  belief  that  persons  in  acute  alcoholic  intoxication  may 
be  sobered  by  some  unusual  circumstance  if  the  shock  is  intense  enough. 
It  seems  to  be  common  experience  for  the  excessive  user  on  occasion  to 
struggle  to  remain  master  of  himself.  He  finally  succumbs  to  alcoholic 
narcosis  only  when  the  autogenic  reinforcements  fail. 

There  is  direct  evidence  in  the  experience  of  our  subjects  that  cerebral 
autogenic  reinforcement  did  in  fact  occur  to  modify  the  effect  of  alcohol. 
One  of  the  subjects  remarked  with  surprise  how  "sleepy"  he  could  be 
and  yet  "pull  himself  together"  at  the  signal  for  the  word-reaction. 
A  similar  phenomenon  was  noted  in  the  discussion  of  the  free  association 
experiments,  in  which  a  subject  went  to  sleep  for  a  few  seconds  and  failed 
to  hear  one  stimulus  word,  and  10"  later,  after  being  awakened, 
responded  normally  both  as  to  the  latent  time  and  the  character  of  the 
associate  word.  The  capacity  for  pulling  oneself  together  with  alter- 
nating periods  of  relaxation  is  a  familiar  expression  of  the  same  rhythmic 
reinforcement  that  conditions  attention  waves  and  "spurts"  of  various 
kinds.  But  in  spite  of  the  autogenic  reinforcement,  with  one  exception 
the  performance  after  alcohol  was  not  superior  to  normal.  Reinforce- 
ment in  these  cases  seems  to  consist  chiefly  of  an  arousal  to  more  or  less 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  v       247 

normal  performance.  There  is,  however,  one  exception  to  this  rule, 
and  that  is  the  eye-reaction.  Here,  at  least,  there  seems  to  be  a  definite 
corroboration  of  the  Kraepelin  contention  that  the  choice  reaction  is 
facilitated  by  moderate  doses  of  alcohol.  The  case  will  receive  our 
most  careful  attention  (see  pages  250  and  251). 

But  granting  the  exception  as  a  real  one,  there  can  be  no  doubt  con- 
cerning the  general  experimental  depression  of  the  various  processes. 
With  only  one  apparent  exception  (the  eye-reaction  after  dose  A), 
alcohol  regularly  tends  to  depress  neuro-muscular  action.  But  so  does 
sleep.  The  statement  of  the  tendency  gives  no  clue  to  its  physiological 
character.  Depression  of  neuro-muscular  action  may  be  due  to  any 
one  of  a  considerable  variety  of  antagonistic  conditions.  The  same  is 
true  of  facilitation.  The  unanalyzed  question  whether  alcohol  effects 
a  positive  or  negative  increment  in  the  capacity  of  the  subject  for  any 
specific  mental  performance  or  group  of  performances  is  scientifically 
crude.  We  would  not  appear  to  deny  the  practical  importance  of  such 
a  question.  Both  morally  and  economically  it  may  be  useful  to  know 
whether  an  individual  can  do  more  or  harder  work  after  taking  alcohol 
as  a  part  of  his  food  or  as  a  condiment.  But  the  practical  capacity  for 
effective  work  of  any  definite  sort  is  scientifically  the  product  of  an 
indefinite  number  of  interacting  neural  facilitations  and  inhibitions. 
In  this  complex  and  relatively  unexplored  interplay  of  psycho-physio- 
logical processes,  the  balance  in  any  direction  can  rarely  be  predicted 
with  scientific  accuracy.  In  no  single  case  do  we  know  accurately 
either  the  number  or  the  relative  force  of  the  various  factors.  Con- 
versely, any  specific  outcome  may  be  the  resultant  of  an  indefinite 
number  of  various  configurations  of  the  polygon  of  forces  which  may 
be  in  operation.  In  ergographic  accomplishment,  for  example,  a 
specific  increase  in  the  work  done  may  be  due  to  an  actual  increase  of 
the  available  muscular  energy,  to  a  spurt,  to  increased  interest  and 
determination;  or  it  may  be  due  to  decreased  susceptibility  to  the 
normal  inhibiting  influence  of  muscular  discomfort  or  pain.  Similarly, 
a  decreased  reaction  tune  may  be  due  to  increased  attention,  to  real 
facilitation  of  the  motor  discharge;  or  it  may  be  due  to  careless  reaction 
to  some  accidental  pre-stimulation  cue  that  the  true  stimulus  is  about 
to  come,  or  even  to  some  arbitary  simplification  of  the  reaction  modes, 
such  as  the  change  from  a  sensory  to  a  motor  type.  Only  correlated 
data  can  determine  which  of  the  interacting  tendencies  is  actually 
responsible  for  the  increased  output.  The  naive  assumptions  that 
increased  physiological  action  is  always  organically  beneficent,  as  well 
as  that  depression  of  physiological  action  is  always  organically  disad- 
vantageous, are  merely  popular  prejudices. 


248 


PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTvS   OF   ALCOHOL. 


Let  us  represent  in  schematic  form  some  of  the  possible  conditions  of 
variations  in  the  action  of  an  indicator  consequent  to  the  ingestion  of  a 
drug. 


Apparent  reinforcements  of  a  process  might  be 
due  to: 

A.  Increased  action  at  some  point  in  the  direct 

process. 

B.  The   decreased    action  of  some  inhibiting 

factor. 

Under  the  first  condition,  L  e.,  increased  action 
at  some  point  in  the  direct  process: 

1.  The  drug  may  stimulate  the  indicator 

directly.  (Pilocarpin  on  the  ciliary 
muscle.) 

2.  It  may  make  the  indicator  more  sus- 

ceptible to  its  normal  stimuli. 
(Eserin.) 

3.  It   may   really   depress   the   indicator, 

but  the  depression  may  at  first 
produce  Frolich's1  "scheinbare  Er- 
regbarkeitssteigerung"  due  to  the 
summation  of  delayed  processes. 
(Action  of  CO2  and  fatigue  products 
on  muscle,  nerve,  and  nerve  centers.) 

4.  The  drug  may  act  on  some  of  the  cen- 

tral links  of  the  neuro-muscular  arc, 
(1)  to  stimulate  them  directly,  (2)  to 
make  them  more  susceptible  to 
stimulation,  or  (3)  to  produce 
"scheinbare  Erregbarkeitssteige- 
rung."  (Caffeine  on  central  nervous 
system;  strychnine  on  the  cord; 
COj  and  fatigue  products  on  cen- 
tral nervous  system.) 

5.  It  may  supply  some  condition  of  metab- 

olism, i.  e.,  the  drug  may  be  a  food, 
or,  like  adrenalin,  may  facilitate  the 
liberation  of  stored  foods. 

6.  It  may  facilitate  the  diffusion  of  food 

or  oxygen,  by  increased  osmotic 
pressure,  or  by  decreased  resistance 
of  permeable  membranes. 

7.  It  may   facilitate  the   distribution   of 

food  or  oxygen  by  increasing  the 
flow  of  blood.  (Increased  pulse- 
rate.) 

B.  Similarly  the  drug  may  depress  inhibit- 
ing or  controlling  mechanism  in  some 
of  the  ways  described  under  depres- 
sion and  so  facilitate  the  process 
that  serves  as  indicator. 


Apparent  depression  of  a  process  might  fte 
due  to: 

A.  Decreased  action  at  some  point  in  the  direct 

process. 

B.  The   increased    action    of  some  inhibiting 

factor. 
Under  the  first  condition  of  direct  depression: 

1.  The  drug  may  narcotize  the  indicator 

directly.  (Like  curare  on  motor- 
nerve  endings,  or  cocaine  on  pain- 
receptors.) 

2.  It  may  make  the  indicator  more  sus- 

ceptible to  depressing  condition. 
(Increased  fatigability  after  strych- 
nine.) 

3.  It  may  directly  increase  the  conserva- 

tive processes  in  the  indicator  by 
delaying  metabolism.  (The  best 
example  is  not  a  drug,  but  cold.) 


4.  It  may  act  on  some  remote  point  of 

the  neuro-muscular  arc  (1)  to  nar- 
cotize it  directly,  (2)  to  make  it 
more  susceptible  to  inhibiting  stim- 
uli, or  (3)  to  increase  in  it  some  con- 
servative process.  (Morphine  on 
central  nervous  system ;  unknown  to 
writers  if  any  drug  has  this  specific 
action;  extreme  form  in  normal 
sleep.) 

5.  The  drug  may  destroy  or  render  una- 

vailable some  normal  food  or  oxygen 
supply.  (Nerve-tissue  under  chlor- 
oform narcosis.) 

6.  It  may  hinder  the  diffusion  of  food  or 

oxygen,  by  decreasing  osmotic  pres- 
sure. 

7.  It   may   decrease    the  distribution   of 

food  or  oxygen  by  decreasing  the 
blood  flow,  or  by  affecting  the 
hemoglobin,  as  CO. 

B.  Similarly  it  may  stimulate  the  inhibit- 
ing and  controlling  mechanism  in 
some  of  the  ways  described  under 
stimulation  of  the  direct  process. 


Even  this  analysis  does  not  exhaust  the  possibilities  of  complication; 
but  it  serves  to  illustrate  the  difficulties  of  the  task  of  interpreting  the 
meaning  of  any  specific  increase  or  decrease  in  the  operation  of  an  indica- 
tor. What  we  know  of  the  physiological  oxidation  and  pharmacology  of 
alcohol  makes  it  clear  that  some  of  these  complications  really  exist  in 


'Frolich.  Zcitschr.  f.  allg.  Physiol.,  1909.  9.  p.  1. 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  249 

its  action.  Quite  apart  from  the  question  of  any  hypothetical  selective 
effect,  alcohol  is  known  to  be  a  source  of  energy,  which  some  tissues  at 
least  seem  able  to  use  directly  (perfused  heart).  Under  certain  con- 
ditions it  is  known  to  act  as  a  local  irritant.  In  large  doses  at  least  it  is 
known  to  be  a  narcotic  belonging  pharmacologically  to  the  chloroform 
group. 

Following  the  general  outline  of  problems  that  is  indicated  by  our 
schema,  the  action  of  alcohol  is  first  of  all  a  problem  of  the  resultant  of 
its  various  possible  effects  on  any  given  process,  as  a  source  of  energy, 
local  irritant,  and  narcotic.  For  human  subjects  our  data  seem  to  show 
rather  conclusively  that  in  the  several  neuro-muscular  processes  which 
we  have  investigated,  depression  overbalances  all  other  effects  of 
alcohol.  But  we  are  bound  to  ask  whether  the  apparent  depression  is 
due  to  a  real  paralysis  of  some  factor  in  the  direct  process,  or  whether 
in  part  or  in  whole  it  may  not  be  due  to  the  stimulation  of  inhibitory 
mechanisms.  In  either  case  we  must  inquire  further  whether  the  effect 
is  peripheral  or  central;  that  is,  whether  the  alcohol  directly  affects 
the  end  links  in  the  neural  chain,  or  whether  it  affects  coordination 
processes  in  nervous  centers.  Finally,  since  the  activity  of  nervous 
tissue  as  a  whole  is  modified  by  the  interaction  of  other  tissues,  a 
complete  account  of  the  action  of  alcohol  on  any  given  indicator 
involves  the  coordinate  action  of  alcohol  on  all  the  several  processes 
that  may  influence  the  indicator  or  the  central  nervous  mechanism  that 
operates  it. 

This  final  problem  will  not  be  solved  until  the  whole  alcohol  program 
is  completed.  But  in  the  systematic  interrelation  of  the  processes 
which  we  have  measured,  as  well  as  in  the  variation  of  the  dose,  we 
hoped  that  our  present  data  would  permit  some  definite  contribution  to 
the  final  solution.  With  the  total  problem  in  mind,  our  first  task  is 
to  scrutinize  our  data  for  whatever  indication  they  may  give  with 
respect  to  the  fundamental  interpretative  question  as  to  whether  or  not 
the  apparent  depression  is  due  to  a  stimulation  of  inhibitory  mechan- 
isms. The  second  question  that  we  must  face  is  as  to  whether  the 
alcoholic  depression  may  not  be  regarded  as  conservative  or  recupera- 
tive. Thirdly,  we  shall  look  for  a  possible  interrelationship  of  the 
processes  through  differences  in  their  temporal  incidence,  and  finally, 
we  shall  inquire  which  of  the  various  effects  which  we  have  measured 
represents  the  central  tendency  most  completely.  This  should  not 
only  show  us  something  of  the  general  reliability  of  the  measurements 
for  the  estimation  of  personal  differences;  it  should  also  indicate 
whether  the  effects  of  alcohol  are  predominantly  sensory,  motor,  or 
central. 


250  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF    ALCOHOL. 

EVIDENCE  FOR  ALCOHOLIC  STIMULATION. 

There  is  in  the  scientific  literature  concerning  the  effect  of  alcohol  a 
large  body  of  experimental  evidence  that,  like  the  mass  of  common 
non-experimental  experience,  seems  to  point  to  an  initial  neuro- 
muscular  excitation,  resulting  from  small  or  moderate  doses  of  alcohol 
(school  of  Binz1).  Thus  in  excised  muscles,  the  work  of  Scheffer2  and  of 
F.  S.  Lee3  and  his  collaborators  seems  to  have  demonstrated  that  a  small 
amount  of  alcohol  "is  capable  of  augmenting  the  work  of  a  skeletal 
muscle."  Increased  excitability  after  alcohol  was  found  in  frog  nerves 
(Mommsen,4  Ef ron,6  and  Breyer6) .  The  reinforcing  action  of  alcohol  on 
the  exhausted  perfused  heart  may  be  regarded  as  demonstrated  (Loeb,7 
Wood  and  Hoyt,8  and  Dixon9).  The  reaction  experiments  by  Krae- 
pelin  and  various  ergographic  studies  are  commonly  cited  in  support  of 
a  short  stimulatory  effect  of  moderate  doses  on  the  central  nervous 
system.  Evidence  is  not  wanting,  on  the  other  hand,  that  much  of 
the  augmenting  effect  of  alcohol  is  really  due  to  secondary  or  remote 
effects  (school  of  Schmiedeberg,10  Bunge,11  et  a/.).  The  most  carefully 
controlled  ergographic  work  of  Rivers12  is  entirely  negative.  In  our 
own  material,  the  chief  evidence  for  neuro-muscular  excitation  is  found 
in  the  latent  time  of  the  eye-reactions.  They  alone  show  consistent 
improvement  after  the  smaller  dose  of  alcohol.  In  4  out  of  5  available 
cases  the  result  of  alcohol  was  facilitation.  The  greatest  individual 
improvement  was  15  per  cent.  The  average  improvement  for  the 
group  was  5  per  cent.  Similarly,  for  the  psychopathies,  2  out  of  3 
cases  show  decrease  in  the  latency  of  the  ej'e-reaction  as  a  result  of 
the  smaller  dose  of  alcohol.  The  facts  are  clear  enough.  It  is  no  argu- 
ment against  them  that  they  are  unique  in  our  experiments.  But  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  15  c.c.  more  of  alcohol,  i.  e.,  a  dose  of  45  c.c. 
conditioned  a  delay  in  the  eye-reaction  three  times  greater  than  the 
improvement  produced  by  the  smaller  dose.  The  average  result  of 
both  alcohol  doses  on  the  eye-reactions  is  to  lengthen  their  latency 
about  5  per  cent. 

But  it  would  be  unjust  to  our  data  and  to  our  problem  to  consider 
only  the  general  average.  Exceptions  to  a  general  tendency,  provided 
they  are  genuine,  are  theoretically  as  important  as  the  generalization. 

'Binz,  Grundzuge  der  Arzneimittellehre,  Berlin,  1901. 

*Scheffer,  Archiv  f.  exp.  Path.  u.  Pharm.,  1900,  44,  p.  24. 

*Lee  and  Salant,  Am.  Journ.  Phyaiol.,  1903,  8,  p.  61;  Lee  and  Levine,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol., 
1912,  30,  p.  389. 

4Mommsen,  Virchow's  Archiv,  1881,  83,  p.  273. 

'Efron,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Phyaiol.,  1885,  36,  p.  467. 

«Breyer,  Archiv  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol.,  1903,  99,  p.  481. 

7Loeb,  Archiv  f.  exp.  Path.  u.  Pharm.,  1905,  52,  p.  459. 

'Wood  and  Hoyt,  Mem.  Nat.  Acad.  of  Sci.  (pub.  1905),  1911,  10,  p.  39. 

•Dixon,  Journ.  Physiol.,  1907,  35,  p.  346. 

10Schmiedeberg,  Grundrias  der  Pharmakologie,  Leipsic,  1902. 

"Bunge,  Lehrbuch  der  Physiologic  des  Menschen,  Leipsic,  1905,  2d  ed.;  Die  Alkoholfrag*. 
Leipsic,  1887. 

"Rivers,  The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  other  Drugs  on  Fatigue,  London,  1908. 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  251 

While  they  do  not  affect  the  general  tendency,  they  do  save  generali- 
zations from  the  error  of  artificial  simplicity.  We  are  consequently 
under  a  double  obligation  to  examine  in  some  detail  the  apparent 
exception  to  the  main  tendency  of  our  results. 

In  discussing  our  eye-reaction  technique,  we  found  some  grounds 
for  dissatisfaction  owing  to  the  limited  number  of  positions  for  the 
peripheral  object  of  regard,  and  the  consequent  possibility  of  antici- 
patory reactions.  The  same  fault  will  be  found  (p.  89)  to  have  pro- 
duced an  unexpected  practice  effect  in  the  eye-reactions  on  normal 
days.  WTe  can  not  agree  with  a  supposititious  critic  who,  on  the  ground 
of  this  practice  effect,  might  hold  that  the  eye-reaction  fails  to  fulfill 
our  demands  for  a  thoroughly  practiced  experimental  process.  That 
which  is  thoroughly  practiced  in  this  reaction  is,  however,  the  differ- 
ential coordination  of  the  eye-muscles  to  bring  the  line  of  regard  to  any 
one  of  an  indefinite  number  of  positions.  Our  experiment  was  an  arti- 
ficial simplification  of  natural  conditions.  Instead  of  an  indefinite 
number  of  possible  positions  we  used  only  6.  Apparently  all  our 
subjects  learned  by  experience  during  the  experiments  to  respond  to 
one  of  the  6  new  positions  more  rapidly  than  they  were  in  the  habit  of 
responding  to  an  indefinite  number.  Doubtless  this  should  have  been 
foreseen  in  planning  the  experiment.  In  excuse  one  can  only  say  that 
the  data  on  normal  eye-movements  are  not  very  abundant  and  the 
particular  point  had  never  arisen  before.  Dodge1  had  found  that  in 
the  course  of  over  10  years  of  eye-reaction  records  his  eye-reaction  had 
not  materially  changed  and  we  failed  to  realize  that  in  his  experiments 
a  great  variety  of  positions  were  used.  It  is  not  impossible  that  indefi- 
nite variation  of  the  eye-reactions  would  have  been  open  to  more  serious 
criticism  because  of  lack  of  uniformity  on  the  different  experimental 
days.  After  all,  as  far  as  the  main  results  are  concerned,  a  moderate 
practice  effect  is  not  serious.  It  was  provided  for  by  the  distribution 
of  normal  days.  This  type  of  reaction  gave  comparable  values  for  all 
sorts  of  untrained  subjects,  and  the  effect  of  repetition  is  clearly  repre- 
sented on  the  normal  base-line. 

Our  facilitation-inhibition  problem,  however,  gives  the  possibility  of 
simplified  elaboration  of  reaction  a  more  serious  aspect.  We  may 
indicate  its  bearing  by  a  question:  ''What  would  have  happened  if  we 
had  still  further  simplified  the  motor  elaboration  of  the  eye-reaction  by 
reducing  the  number  of  stimulus  positions  to  one  instead  of  six?"  The 
answer  to  this  question  we  know  from  accidental  experience.  Such 
simplification  would  have  led  to  frequent  if  not  to  regular  anticipatory 
reactions.  The  voluntary  control  of  our  eye-movements  is  meager  at 
best.  If  we  know  where  an  object  is  about  to  appear  it  takes  a  great 
deal  of  practice  and  an  entirely  artificial  inhibition  to  prevent  looking 
at  the  expected  place.  The  artificial  development  of  such  inhibitions 

Monograph  Supplement  of  the  Psychol.  Review,  1907,  No.  36. 


252         PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

would  have  produced  a  most  unnatural  reaction  type.  Similarly,  by 
analogy  with  all  known  "choice"  reactions  the  simplification  of  the 
possible  modes  of  reaction  from  infinity  to  six  would  also  tend  to  reduce 
the  reaction  time.  Now  it  is  not  inconceivable,  and  indeed,  from  the 
numerous  indications  of  our  experimental  results,  it  seems  probable,  that 
the  more  elaborate  controls  often  suffer  earlier  than  the  function  itself. 
This  tendency  appeared  in  the  highly  inhibited  reflexes  (Subjects  X 
and  IV) ,  where  the  inhibition  suffered  first.  It  appeared  in  the  memory 
experiments  of  Subject  VII,  when  the  complex  associative  "story" 
suffered  far  more  than  simple  perse veration.  Indeed,  the  suppression 
of  distraction  in  one  instance  seemed  to  aid  the  perseveration  process. 
This  tendency  appeared  also  in  the  threshold  to  Faradic  stimulation, 
where  alcohol  disturbed  the  subject's  caution  and  produced  more 
numerous  false  reactions,  i.  e.,  reactions  when  there  were  no  stimuli. 
The  more  exact  elaboration  of  the  motor  response  which  brings  the  eye 
to  a  new  point  of  regard  in  a  single  sweep  also  involves  a  complex 
control,  and  less  careful  elaboration  would  permit  a  quicker  response. 

Whether  or  not  the  eye-movements  after  30  c.c.  of  alcohol  are  in 
fact  less  accurately  adjusted  than  normal  could  be  finally  settled  only 
by  experimental  measurement.  But  unfortunately  spatially  quanti- 
tative techniques  would  be  vastly  more  exacting  than  our  temporally 
quantitative  technique.  It  is  somewhat  doubtful  if  it  could  be  applied 
indiscriminately  to  untrained  subjects,  such  as  those  with  whom  we 
dealt.  However  that  may  be,  the  records  at  hand  were  not  taken  with 
spatially  quantitative  results  in  view.  Consequently  our  results  may 
not  be  directly  interpreted  in  spatial  terms.  But  in  the  absence  of 
direct  measurements  it  was  obviously  necessary  to  bring  whatever 
indirect  evidence  we  possessed  to  bear  on  the  problem  of  the  apparent 
exception. 

It  is  not  without  significance  that  under  almost  identical  circum- 
stances of  a  complex  "choice"  reaction  in  the  process  of  training, 
Frankfurther1  found  typewriting  errors  enormously  increased  by  alco- 
hol, while  the  speed  was  occasionally  increased  (cf.  his  41st  day,  pp. 
436-437).  His  introspection  is  not  irrelevant  (p.  455):  "I  had  the 
feeling  that  the  fingers  ran  faster  than  I  could  find  the  right  spot  for  the 
stroke.  I  often  struck  keys  against  my  will,  so  that  I  must  voluntarily 
inhibit  the  movements  in  order  not  to  make  a  mistake  at  every  letter."2 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  even  in  small  experimental  doses  along 
with  and  as  a  part  of  the  general  depression  we  have  clear  indications  of 
a  paralysis  of  inhibitory  or  controlling  factors.  These  may  on  occasion 
suffer  greater  relative  depression  than  the  direct  process,  as  in  the  pulse. 
When  this  depression  of  controls  is  combined  with  a  reinforcement 
caused  by  the  experimental  instructions,  suitable  conditions  are  pro- 
vided for  the  slight  reinforcements  of  reactions  that  rapidly  pass  over  into 

'Frankfurther,  Psychol.  Arbeit.,  1914.  6,  p.  419.  'Translated  by  authors. 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  253 

depression  with  slightly  larger  doses.  It  seems  probable,  too,  that  we 
have  herewith  come  upon  the  grounds  for  a  wide  variety  of  effects  which 
are  commonly  observed  in  the  social  use  of  alcohol,  when  circumstances 
give  the  reinforcement  and  alcohol  reduces  the  inhibitions. 

Whatever  may  be  the  effect  in  isolated  tissue,  our  data  give  clear  and 
consistent  indications  that  the  apparent  alcoholic  depression  of  neuro- 
muscular  processes  is  a  genu'ne  phenomenon  that  can  not  be  reduced  to 
the  excitation  of  inhibitory  processes;  but  that,  conversely,  whenever 
apparent  excitation  occurs  as  a  result  of  alcohol  it  is  either  demon- 
strably  (pulse-rate,  reflexes,  memory,  and  threshold)  or  probably  (eye- 
reaction)  due  to  a  relatively  overbalancing  depression  of  the  controlling 
and  inhibitory  processes. 

IS  ALCOHOLIC  DEPRESSION  A  CONSERVATIVE  PROCESS? 

One  factor  in  our  related  group  of  measurements  was  expressly  intro- 
duced for  its  indication  of  general  physiological  conditions.  That 
factor  is  the  pulse-rate.  There  are  grounds  for  believing  that  the  pulse- 
rate  is  the  best  index  of  the  general  metabolic  demands  that  is  available 
in  psychological  experiments  (Dodge1), 

It  would  doubtless  be  better  if  the  psychological  experiments  could 
be  carried  out  coincidently  with  respiration  experiments,  or  some  other 
means  for  determining  total  metabolism  during  the  mental  activity. 
Such  an  arrangement,  however,  would  present  the  greatest  technical 
difficulties  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  psychological  experiments 
and  from  the  standpoint  of  total  metabolism  experiments.  With 
respect  to  the  psychological  experiments,  it  would  be  a  questionable 
procedure  to  add  the  insistently  obvious  and  not  too  comfortable 
attachments  for  respiration  experiments  in  the  expectation  of  getting 
natural  psychological  reactions.  With  respect  to  the  metabolic  experi- 
ments, it  would  not  be  easy  to  arrange  a  technique  to  measure  the 
differential  metabolism  for  the  few  minutes  that  are  involved  in  the 
psychological  experiments.  Probably  both  difficulties  could  be  over- 
come by  sufficient  sacrifice  of  time  and  money,  but  the  satisfactory 
simultaneous  operation  of  the  two  elaborate  techniques  would  always 
be  a  difficult  task.  Fortunately  for  provisional  experiments,  at  least, 
there  are  scientific  grounds  for  believing  that  changes  in  general 
metabolism  are  indicated  by  the  pulse-rate. 

The  experience  of  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  in  its  studies  of  the 
relationship  between  pulse-rate  and  metabolism  is  best  expressed  by 
the  following  quotations: 

"A  comparison  of  this  pulse-rate  with  the  total  heat-production  shows  a 
striking  uniformity  in  fluctuations  and  similar  comparisons  with  other  experi- 
ments show  in  nearly  every  instance  a  parallelism."2 


^odge,  Psychol.  Review,  1913,  20,  p.  1. 

'Benedict,  The  Influence  of  Inanition  on  Metabolism,  Carnegie  Inst.  Wash.  Pub.  No.  77,  1907, 

p.  488. 


254  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

"In  the  course  of  experiments  it  has  been  observed  that  with  very  slight 
activity  the  pulse  and  the  metabolism  are  at  a  minimum.  When  the  activity 
is  increased,  the  pulse-rate  is  likewise  accelerated,  and  there  is  an  increase  in 
the  total  metabolism.  It  has  furthermore  seemed  clear  that  the  increase 
in  the  pulse-rate  is  relatively  proportional  to  the  increase  in  the  actual  mus- 
cular activity  observed."  (Benedict  and  Carpenter.1)  Again  (p.  249): 
"Pulse-rate  increases  during  the  waking  hours  of  the  day  as  compared  with 
the  night.  We  can  obtain  an  approximate  idea  of  the  total  metabolism  from 
the  pulse-rate  of  a  subject,  although  the  rate  per  minute  of  itself  is  not  neces- 
sarily a  general  index  of  the  katabolism  for  all  individuals." 

Still  more  recently  Murlin  and  Greer2  wrote: 

"Experiments  on  dogs  were  devised  in  which  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and 
the  output  of  carbon  dioxide  were  determined  by  means  of  a  small  Benedict 
respiration  apparatus  attached  directly  to  the  dog's  trachea.  Simultaneously 
the  blood-pressure  was  recorded.  The  effects  of  anesthesia  were  controlled. 
Similar  experiments  on  several  different  men  in  widely  different  nutritive 
conditions  and  in  varying  degrees  of  muscular  activity  (lying  on  a  bed,  stand- 
ing, standing  and  lifting  weights,  shivering,  etc.)  were  also  done  by  means  of 
the  same  respiration  apparatus  and  the  Erlanger  sphygmomanometer.  The 
results  show  a  fairly  close  correlation  in  the  same  individual  between  the  heart- 
output  expressed  as  the  product  of  the  pulse-pressure  and  the  heart-rate  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  the  elimination  of  carbon 
dioxide  on  the  other.  The  relation  between  carbon-dioxide  elimination  and 
heart-action  is  on  the  whole  a  little  more  constant  than  that  between  the 
oxygen  absorption  and  heart  action." 

Quite  recently  observations  by  Professor  H.  M.  Smith,  of  the  Nutri- 
tion Laboratory,  have  shown  that  during  walking  the  metabolism  may 
increase  250  per  cent  without  any  increment  in  pulse-rate.  This 
striking  exception  to  the  rule  makes  us  very  cautious  in  drawing  unsup- 
ported inferences  from  the  pulse-rate  to  metabolism,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  all  the  other  experience  of  the  Laboratory  is  to  the  effect 
that  increased  muscular  activity  correlates  with  an  increased  pulse. 

The  existence  of  some  intimate  connection  between  pulse  and  mental 
states  is  a  commonly  accepted  fact  of  great  antiquity.  Mosso3  and 
his  followers  found  in  the  relative  distribution  of  the  blood  to  the  brain 
and  other  parts  of  the  body  a  measure  of  mental  activit}'.  Seriously 
controlled  attempts  to  correlate  definite  circulatory  changes  with  defi- 
nite mental  processes  find  their  most  important  expression  in  the  work 
of  Lehmann.4  An  enormous  amount  of  data  still  leaves  the  question 
open  whether  any  specific  mental  state  can  be  absolutely  correlated 
with  any  specific  change  in  pulse  or  respiration,  in  the  sense  that  the 
one  can  be  inferred  from  the  other.  Indeed,  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
nervous  conditions  of  vasomotor  innervation  there  seems  to  be  no  good 
reason  for  definite  correlation  with  specific  cerebral  processes.  That 

'Benedict  and  Carpenter,  The  Metabolism  and  Energy   Transformations  of   Healthy  Man 
during  Rest,  Carnegie  Inst.  Wash.  Pub.  No.  126,  1910,  p.  248. 
*MurUn  and  Greer,  Am.  Journ.  Physiol.,  1910-11,  27,  p.  xviii. 
'Mosao,  Ueber  den  Kreislauf  des  Blutes  im  menschlichen  Gehirn,  Leipsic,  1881. 
4Lehmann,  Die  korperlichen  Aeusserungen  psychischer  Zustande,  Leipsic,  1899-1905. 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  255 

the  circulatory  system  responds  with  great  delicacy  and  complexity 
of  adjustment  to  waves  of  nervous  excitation  is  an  empirical  fact.  But 
the  mechanism  of  those  adjustments  is  as  little  known  to  us  as  the 
nervous  conditions  of  thought  itself.  As  mere  expressions  of  mental 
states  they  probably  have  no  peculiar  analytic  function  in  psychology 
which  may  not  equally  well  be  assumed  for  a  considerable  number  of 
involuntary  muscles  and  glands. 

The  biological  function  of  the  circulatory  system,  however,  gives  it  a 
unique  connection  with  the  nervous  as  well  as  with  the  muscular  activi- 
ties of  the  body.  Since  the  blood-currents  supply  the  conditions  of  all 
metabolism,  in  any  adequately  organized  body  within  the  limits  of 
physiological  efficiency  there  must  be  a  general  correspondence  between 
need  and  supply.  This  theoretical  assumption  is  borne  out  by  the 
experimental  evidence.  Muscular  activity  in  any  part  of  the  body 
almost  immediately  increases  the  heart-rate  over  the  rate  during  relax- 
ation. In  any  individual  under  normal  circumstances,  the  heart-rate 
is  more  or  less  closely  proportional  to  the  amount  of  activity. 

Apparently  for  considerable  periods  of  sustained  work  the  corre- 
spondence between  metabolism  and  the  heart-rate  is  much  closer  than 
for  short  periods.  Grounds  for  the  unreliability  of  short  periods  are 
easily  discoverable.  The  biological  correspondence  between  need  and 
response  can  not  be  a  cooordinate  or  a  preliminary  adjustment.  No 
automatic  vasomotor  or  cardiac  excitation  could  be  based  on  prophecy 
of  action  without  the  need  of  constant  readjustment.  No  adjustment 
could  be  based  on  the  actual  need  without  a  certain  lag  of  latent  time. 
So  whatever  the  mechanism,  whether  one  of  preparation  or  one  of 
reaction,  we  would  expect  oscillatory  variations  about  the  line  of  actual 
need.  This  gives  rise  to  a  serious  limitation  of  the  use  of  heart-rate  as 
an  indicator  of  metabolism  in  mental  activity.  To  assume  that  the 
intense  disturbances  of  short  duration  that  occur  in  emotion  exactly 
correspond  to  metabolic  demands  would  be  unwarranted  by  any  of 
the  present  evidences  of  correlation.  It  is  not  impossible.  Since  the 
emotions  represent  moments  of  active  readjustment,  there  is  some 
ground  for  suspecting  that  they  will  make  their  own  peculiar  demands 
on  metabolism.  But  correlations  are  matters  of  fact,  not  of  probability. 
A  direct  study  of  metabolism  would  seem  to  be  a  desideratum  in  the 
dynamic  psychology  of  the  emotions.  Similarly,  to  assume  that  every 
change  in  the  heart-rate  is  significant  of  some  definite  though  uncleared 
mental  state  would  be  unwarranted.  Lehmann  some  time  ago  aban- 
doned his  early  supposition  to  this  effect.  The  rhythmic  changes  in 
heart-rate  due  to  respiration  give  an  illustration  of  the  danger  of 
attempting  to  isolate  short  intervals  experimentally. 

Furthermore,  the  pulse-rate  never  gives  direct  and  absolute  values- 
only  relative  and  comparative.  The  pulse  of  muscular  work  is  com- 
monly known  to  be  both  larger  and  faster  than  that  of  muscular 
relaxation.  The  amount  of  acceleration  produced  by  any  given  quan- 


256          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

tity  of  muscular  work  is  a  purely  individual  matter  and  varies  within 
wide  limits  in  different  individuals.  It  is  a  significant  factor  in  the 
organic  personal  equation  of  the  individual.  At  different  times  and 
under  different  conditions  of  health  the  pulse  of  the  same  individual 
shows  changes  of  excitability.  But,  other  conditions  being  constant 
within  the  same  organic  equation,  two  different  kinds  of  work  giving 
rise  to  the  same  pulse  conditions  may  be  provisionally  expected  to  be 
physiological  equivalents.  Conversely,  if  the  kind  of  work  remains 
the  same,  difference  in  the  pulse  in  successive  experiments  will  indicate 
subjective  changes. 

Such  subjective  changes  are  clearly  shown  in  our  records  in  the 
adaptive  process,  as  indicated  by  the  pulse  during  the  association 
experiments.  That  the  same  moderate  physical  activity  is  accompanied 
by  a  higher  pulse-rate  after  alcohol  is  abundantly  proved  by  our  pulse- 
records.  Still  more  significant  is  the  fact  that  notwithstanding  de- 
pressed neuro-muscular  action  the  pulse-rate  is  uniformly  higher  for  the 
same  kind  of  mental  work  after  alcohol  than  it  is  without  it.  It  does 
not  seriously  modify  the  meaning  of  the  correlation  if  we  should  abandon 
the  probable  but  debatable  implication  of  increased  metabolism  for  a 
given  amount  of  mental  work.  Even  if  it  should  prove  true  that  the 
local  action  of  alcohol  on  the  circulation  centers  disturbed  the  normal 
correlation  between  metabolism  and  the  heart-rate,  the  fact  of  increased 
heart-rate  for  a  given  kind  and  amount  of  mental  work  absolutely 
prohibits  us  from  regarding  the  neuro-muscular  depression  incident  to 
alcohol  as  a  conservative  process  like  sleep. 

TEMPORAL  INCIDENCE  OF  THE  EFFECT  AFTER  THE  INGESTION  OF 

ALCOHOL. 

The  beginning  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  our  measurements  is  found 
within  the  30-minute  period  after  ingestion.  Our  experiments  were 
not  designed  for  a  closer  approximation.  It  is  doubtful  if,  with  our 
present  techniques,  the  problem  of  a  differential  beginning  of  the  effects 
of  alcohol  can  be  investigated  profitably,  since  the  first  relatively  slight 
effects  will  be  obscured  by,  or  confused  with,  the  normal  accidental 
variations.  The  beginning  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  will  probably  be 
studied  in  the  future  as  in  the  past  on  some  particularly  favorable 
indicator.  As  will  appear  later  in  this  chapter,  of  all  the  techniques 
which  are  used  in  this  investigation,  the  eye-movements  are  not  only 
the  most  consistent  for  the  entire  group,  but  they  correlate  most  closely 
with  the  average  results  for  each  individual,  and  can  be  repeated 
indefinitely  without  significant  practice  effects.  Of  all  our  measure- 
ments they  are  consequently  the  most  likely  to  show  the  beginning  of 
the  effects  of  alcohol.  That,  however,  is  a  problem  for  the  future. 

In  addition  to  the  fact  that  the  beginning  of  the  effect  of  alcohol 
occurs  within  the  first  period,  our  present  data  show  that  the  maximum 
effect  and  the  beginning  of  recovery  usually  occurs  within  the  3-hour 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS. 


257 


session.     The  incidence  of  the  maximum  effect  appears  to  differ  some- 
what for  the  different  processes,  as  is  shown  in  table  47. 

The  general  time  of  incidence  of  the  maximum  effect  of  alcohol,  as 
shown  by  table  47,  is  surprisingly  uniform  within  the  limits  of  the  half- 
hour  periods  in  which  the  measurements  were  repeated.  While  there 
are  apparently  some  individual  differences,  the  averages  show  consid- 
erable uniformity.  The  most  conspicuous  exception  to  the  average 
incidence  is  found  in  the  case  of  the  eye-movements.  The  alcoholic 
disturbance,  as  shown  in  these  most  complex  of  the  coordination  proc- 
esses which  we  attempted  to  measure,  increased  up  to  the  last  period  of 
the  session.  This  disturbance  of  the  eye-movements  may  partially 
account  for  the  subjective  impression  of  several  of  our  subjects  that  they 
found  it  less  easy  to  study  effectively  during  the  evening  after  an  experi- 
mental session  when  dose  B  was  given.  In  general  it  appears  that  the 

TABLE  47.— Time  of  incidence  of  the  maximum  depressive  effect  of  alcohol. 
[Values  in  minutes  after  ingestion  of  alcohol.] 


Measurement. 

Time. 

Patellar  reflex: 
Reaction  time  
Extent  of  contraction  
Lid  reflex: 
Reaction  time  
Extent  of  contraction  
Eye-reaction 

I 

95     1 
65 

90 
100 
90 

Word-reaction 

95 

Faradic  threshold  
Finger-movements 

100     ! 
100 

Eye-movements  

120     , 

reflexes  begin  to  recover  first.  It  would  be  an  easy  hypothesis  that  the 
more  primitive  processes  should  show  the  earliest  recovery.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  intricate  interconnection  of  neural  processes  which 
we  must  take  into  account,  it  would  be  uncritical  to  assume  that  the 
relatively  early  maximum  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  reflexes  and  a  conse- 
quent relatively  early  commencement  of  recovery  is  really  an  indication 
of  particularly  rapid  recuperation  of  the  reflex  arcs  from  the  effects  of 
alcohol.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  partial  recovery  of  sensitivity 
of  the  lower  is  due  to  the  increasing  paralysis  of  the  higher  centers.  It 
is  physiological  commonplace  that  reflexes  are  quicker,  more  pro- 
nounced, and  more  regular  when  the  lower  centers  are  freed  from  the 
inhibiting  action  of  the  higher.  Against  this  hypothesis,  however,  is 
the  fact  that  the  knee-jerk  is  depressed  or  lost  in  sleep,  notwithstanding 
the  extreme  depression  of  the  cerebral  processes.  Conversely,  mental 
excitement  commonly  increases  the  amplitude  of  the  jerk.  Mere 
attention  to  the  process  may  reinforce  it.  Direct  evidence  that  might 
decide  the  question  as  to  the  conditions  of  the  variation  in  incidence 
in  our  experiments  is  entirely  lacking.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  can  be 


258  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

produced  without  operative  technique.  But  whatever  may  be  found 
to  be  the  conditions,  it  seems  to  be  of  considerable  theoretical  and 
practical  importance  that  the  lower  reflex  centers  begin  to  recover  from 
the  depressive  action  of  moderate  doses  of  alcohol  while  the  disturbance 
of  the  more  complex  coordinating  centers  is  still  increasing. 

It  is  an  important  psycho-physiological  question  whether  alcohol 
effects  permanent  residual  modification  of  any  neuro-muscular  proc- 
esses in  the  direction  of  the  original  disturbance  or  not;  and  if  not, 
whether  the  subsequent  recovery  just  reaches  the  normal  base-line  or 
crosses  it.  This  question  is  directly  related  to  the  problem  of  tolerance, 
increased  susceptibility,  and  secondary  reactions  to  the  alcoholic  dose. 
It  is  also  related  to  the  theoretical  question  of  the  consequences  incident 
to  the  disturbance  and  the  permeability  of  the  limiting  membrane  of 
the  cell  and  the  solution  of  lipoid  substances  (Meyer1  and  Overton2) . 
Minute  permanent  lesions,  if  they  exist  as  the  consequence  of  a  small 
dose  of  alcohol,  could  scarcely  be  detected  by  any  available  technique. 
They  would  be  swamped  by  uncontrollable  accidental  variations  inci- 
dent to  other  conditions  of  development  and  by  the  inevitable  environ- 
mental changes.  That  permanent  anatomical  and  physiological 
changes  may  and  do  follow  long-continued  use  of  even  moderate  doses 
of  alcohol  seems  to  be  supported  by  a  mass  of  clinical  and  experimental 
evidence.  Such  permanent  changes,  however,  are  certainly  not  uni- 
formly in  the  direction  of  the  immediate  changes  produced  by  alcohol. 
Excessive  patellar  reflexes,  for  example,  are  not  uncommon  in  confirmed 
alcoholics.  Unfortunately  our  experimental  sessions  did  not  last  long 
enough  to  follow  any  of  the  recovery  processes  to  their  base-line.  This 
is  another  of  our  unsolved  problems.  However,  two  indications  in  our 
data  are  relevant.  First,  the  refractoriness  of  the  lid-reflexes  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  decrease  in  the  initial  response  after  alcohol.  In 
view  of  the  demonstrated  relationship  (Verworn3)  between  refractori- 
ness and  fatigue,  the  depression  of  reflex  processes  as  the  result  of  alcohol 
can  not  be  regarded  as  due  to  exhaustion  of  available  material,  but 
chiefly  to  a  decrease  in  its  immediate  accessibility.  The  alcoholic 
effect  is,  then,  not  due  to  exhaustion,  but  to  decreased  irritability. 
It  is  consequently  a  plausible  expectation  that  in  all  fatiguing  experi- 
mental processes  the  recovery  after  alcoholic  depression  should  give 
relatively  better  results  than  the  normal  values  after  a  correspond- 
ing period  of  relatively  more  fatiguing  maximum  responses.  There 
are  indications  in  ergographic  experiments  that  something  of  this 
kind  is  true.  In  our  own  experiments,  something  of  this  sort  was 
found  in  the  finger-movements.  Even  the  fatigue  of  the  3-hour  experi- 
mental session  without  exhausting  work  may  properly  be  expected  to 

'Meyer,  Archiv  f.  exp.  Path.  u.  Pharm.,  1899,  42,  p.  109. 
»Overton,  Studien  uber  die  Narkose,  Jena,  1901. 
rVerworn,  Erregung  und  Lahmung,  Jena,  1914. 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  259 

show  similar  results  in  some  cases  at  least.  The  difference  between  the 
beginning  of  recovery  of  the  simple  reflexes  and  of  the  complex  coordi- 
nation processes  is  again  relevant.  While  the  first  effects  are  not  so 
great  in  the  case  of  coordinations,  they  are  more  persistent,  and  the 
probability  of  their  passing  their  base-line  in  recovery  would  seem  to 
be  less.  Moreover,  it  is  in  the  direction  of  coordination  of  nervous 
processes  that  one  would  reasonably  expect  the  most  serious  and  lasting 
effects  in  the  higher  mental  processes. 

There  is  no  measurable  difference  in  our  records  between  the  incidence 
of  the  maximum  effect  after  the  smaller  and  after  the  larger  dose. 
Under  comparable  conditions  the  maximum  effect  came  earlier  after 
dose  B  in  approximately  the  same  proportion  of  instances  as  after  dose  A. 

EFFECT  OF  REPETITION  ON  THE  VARIOUS  MEASUREMENTS. 

The  effect  of  repetition  on  the  various  measurements  is  a  matter  of 
some  interest  in  forming  an  opinion  of  the  applicability  of  the  various 
techniques  for  untrained  subjects.  The  relevant  data  are  given  in 
tables  48  and  49. 

From  tables  48  and  49  it  appears  that  the  latent  time  of  the  reflex 
lid-movement  shows  the  smallest  average  percentile  change  of  all  the 
comparable  processes  as  a  result  of  repetition.  It  is  not  zero  for  any 
individual,  but  in  this  case,  as  in  the  general  interpretation  of  our  data, 
we  must  not  lose  sight  of  our  statistical  principles  that  individual  varia- 
tion must  be  expected  from  numerous  interacting  tendencies.  Only  in 
the  group  or  in  a  considerable  number  of  cases  may  these  accidental 
variations  be  expected  to  neutralize  each  other  and  disclose  the  syste- 
matic or  experimental  change. 

The  extent  of  the  reflex  lid-movement,  on  the  other  hand,  decreased 
more  than  any  other  measured  phenomena,  especially  in  the  psycho- 
pathic subjects.  The  general  apprehensiveness  of  the  psychopathies 
on  their  first  day  in  the  laboratory  would  have  given  us  a  reasonable 
ground  for  this  change  on  the  plausible,  though  unproved,  assumption 
that  the  protective  reflexes  would  be  increased  in  activity  if  the  mental 
"set"  were  in  the  direction  of  suspicion  and  fear.  Partridge1  held 
that  a  diminished  lid-reflex  after  alcohol  was  entirely  accounted  for  by 
the  increased  indifference  of  the  subject.  In  the  present  case,  however, 
this  ground  becomes  most  problematical,  inasmuch  as  the  lid-reflex  was 
not  measured  until  the  third  day  of  the  series,  when  the  apprehensive 
attitude  of  the  subjects  had  largely  subsided.  But  as  the  data  stand 
it  is  doubtful  if  the  two  can  be  wholly  divorced. 

The  second  smallest  percentile  effect  of  repetition  in  the  main  group 
of  subjects  appears  in  the  case  of  the  word-reactions.  This  is  a  striking 
confirmation  of  our  previous  experience  and  theoretical  expectation, 
to  the  effect  that  in  the  case  of  reading  familiar  words  the  few  repetitions 

Cartridge,  Studies  in  the  Psychology  of  Intemperance,  New  York,  1912. 


260 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


of  the  experimental  session  would  be  a  relatively  insignificant  addition 
to  the  sum  of  past  experience.  In  only  one  subject  does  the  effect  of 
repetition  approximate  10  per  cent  in  this  measurement,  and  that  is  the 
case  of  Subject  VII,  a  native  German  with  noticeable  limitations  in 
his  use  of  English. 

Practically  as  satisfactory  in  this  respect  for  the  main  group  of 
subjects  was  the  reciprocal  inner vation  of  the  finger.  Its  average 
practice  change  in  these  experiments  was  4  per  cent. 

TABLE  48. — Effect  of  repetition  on  the  various  measurements. 

[a  equals  0.001".] 


(Normal  I  minus  Normal  II.) 


Normal  subjects. 

Aver- 

Per- 

Measurement. 

II 

III         IV 

VI 

VII 

IX 

age 
effect. 

rent  ik 
effect. 

Lid-reflex: 

R'  (a)  

+  8 

-  3     |-  3 

-  6 

+  G 

+     4 

0 

0 

H'  (mm.)  

-  8.1 

+  5.7I  +  0.7 

+  12 

0 

+     4.8 

+  2.5 

+17 

Eye-reaction  (tr)  

+45 

+  14      +16 

+13 

+14 

+  37 

+23 

+11 

Word-reaction  (a)  

-31 

+  17      +29 

+  18 

+  19 

+  43 

+  16 

+  3.5 

Threshold  for  Faradic  stimulation 

(in  Z  units)  

-  3 

-   1      +53 

+50 

+21 

+  115 

+39 

+  12 

Finger-movements1  

+  2.8 

+  1.0-  0.7 

+  1.1 

+  0.2 

+     4.2 

+  1.4 

+  4 

Eye-movements  (a)  

-  8 

-  5      -20      -28 

-  3 

-  23 

-14 

-  7 

Psychopathic  subjects. 

Measurement. 

Average 
effect. 

Percentile 
effect. 

XI 

XII 

XIV 

Lid-reflex: 

R'  (<r)  

+     4 

+  2 

+  5 

+  4 

+10 

H'  (mm.)  

+     0.9 

+   1.8 

+  7.6 

+  3.4 

+80 

Eye-reaction  (v)  

+  31 

-20 

+28 

+  13 

+  6 

Word-reaction  (a) 

_     7 

+  3 

—  10 

—  5 

_   i 

Threshold  for  Faradic  stimulation 

(in  Z  unite)  

-114 

+40 

+  16 

-20 

-   4 

Finger-movements1  

-     2.9 

-   1.1 

-  7.7 

-  3.9 

-11 

Eye-movements  («•)  

-  26 

-13 

0 

-13 

-  7 

1Number  in  6  seconds. 

TABLE  49. — Order  of  the  measurements  with  tespect  to  the  effect  of 
repetition  with  normal  subjects. 


Measurement. 

Basis  of 
measurement. 

Percentage  effect 
(Normal  I  - 
Normal  II). 

Lid-reflex  
Word-reaction  
Finger-movements  
Eye-movements  
Eye-reaction  
Faradic  threshold  
Lid-reflex  

Latency  
Latency  
Number  
Duration  
Latency  
Z  units  
Extent  

p.ct. 
0 
+  3.5 
+  4.0 
-  7.0 
+  11.0 
+  12.0 
+  17.0 

SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  261 

The  most  consistent  effect  of  repetition,  though  not  the  least,  appears 
in  the  case  of  the  eye-movements.  Its  direction,  however,  is  reversed. 
That  is,  instead  of  being  shortened  by  repetition,  as  one  might  expect, 
the  average  duration  of  the  eye-movements  is  increased  7  per  cent  in 
both  normal  and  psychopathic  subjects  from  the  first  to  the  last  normal 
day.  There  are  no  published  data  which  would  have  led  us  to  expect 
this  apparent  reversal  of  practice.  Its  probable  explanation  is  to  be 
found  in  the  increased  accuracy  of  the  eye-movements  of  40°  after 
practice  in  looking  from  one  fixation-point  to  the  other.  Since  the 
errors  of  fixation  are  due  in  general  to  an  underestimation  of  the 
distance,  and  are  commonly  corrected  by  positive  corrective  move- 
ments in  the  same  direction  as  the  main  eye-movement,  the  practice 
that  results  in  increased  accuracy  of  movement  would  produce  longer 
arcs  of  movements.  But  longer  arcs  of  eye-movement  regularly  take 
longer  times.  That  something  of  this  sort  actually  did  take  place  is 
indicated  by  the  record  of  decreased  length  in  the  corrective  movements 
which  is  found  in  the  full  tables.  Making  allowance  for  these  changes 
in  the  arc  of  movement  it  appears  that  the  actual  angle  velocity  of  the 
eye-movements  is  practically  free  from  practice  effect  during  our 
experiments. 

The  effect  of  repetition  on  the  eye-reactions  is  relatively  large.  This 
appears  not  only  in  a  comparison  of  the  first  and  last  normal  days,  but 
also  in  the  relation  between  normal  and  alcohol  days.  If  one  notes  the 
following  summary  of  eye-reaction  averages,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
gradual  decrease  of  latency  appears  quite  independent  of  the  alcohol 
dose. 

Normal  I.         Dose  A.         Dose  B.         Normal  II. 
Av....  0.216*  0.206'  0.201"  0.193' 

These  results  were  unexpected.  Previous  experiments  with  the  ocu- 
lar reactions  led  us  to  expect  no  effect  of  repetition.  Theoretically  it 
seemed  to  us  that  the  long  training  of  practical  life  would  make  the 
relatively  small  number  of  laboratory  cases  entirely  insignificant.  The 
cause  of  the  discrepancy  between  our  expectation  and  the  results  in 
this  case  is  probably  to  be  found,  as  we  have  already  noted,  in  the  small 
number  of  positions  for  the  eccentric  visual  stimuli  to  which  the  eyes 
moved.  The  effect  of  repetition  in  this  case  constitutes  probable  cause 
for  an  effort  to  improve  the  technique.  If  it  is  finally  found  to  be 
expedient,  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  arrange  apparatus  so  that  each 
peripheral  stimulus  should  occupy  a  different  position  in  the  field  of 
vision.  The  reduction  of  the  number  of  positions  to  6  in  the  present 
experiments  was  made  to  gain  uniformity  of  succeeding  series.  It  was 
not  necessary  and  possibly  it  was  not  expedient.  Given  the  effect  of 
repetition,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  first  alcohol  day  should  show  a 
marked  improvement  in  the  reaction-time  after  the  first  series.  Such 
an  improvement  would  follow  the  general  rules  of  habit  formation. 
In  our  case  it  would  work  directly  opposed  to  such  a  depressing  influ- 


262          PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 

ence  of  alcohol  as  we  might  reasonably  expect  from  other  tests.  That 
in  spite  of  this  repetition  effect  dose  B  shows  a  unanimous  depressing 
effect  of  alcohol  as  measured  by  the  differences,  giving  an  average  of 
14.5  per  cent,  is  alt  the  more  striking.  So,  as  we  have  already  pointed 
out,  the  5.36  per  cent  shortening  of  the  reaction  time  after  dose  A  must 
not  be  regarded  uncritically  as  a  reversal  of  the  sign  of  the  effect  of  a 
small  dose.  It  is  due  in  part  at  least  to  the  position  of  the  experiment 
with  dose  A  in  the  group  of  repetitions.  From  all  the  data  taken 
together  it  is  clear,  however,  that  the  effect  of  30  c.c.  of  alcohol  on  the 
eye-reaction  time  must  be  exceedingly  slight. 

The  relatively  large  average  difference  between  the  two  normal  days 
in  the  threshold  for  Faradic  stimulation  (Z  values)  is  less  easily  ex- 
plained. It  is  probably  not  so  much  an  average  effect  of  repetition 
as  it  is  a  result  of  gross  change  in  a  single  individual  (Subject  IX). 
Into  the  conditions  that  govern  the  changes  in  the  threshold  to  Faradic 
stimulation  we  have  too  fragmentary  an  insight  to  venture  a  hypothesis 
in  this  case.  We  have  already  seen  that  changes  in  the  degree  of 
assurance  which  is  demanded  by  the  subject  may  seriously  influence  the 
apparent  results.  The  influence  of  other  mental  or  physiological 
factors  are  evident  in  the  daily  rhythm.  Effects  of  fatigue  or  the  dis- 
turbance of  accidentally  distracting  noises  are  difficult  to  eliminate  or 
to  equalize. 

As  compared  with  the  measurements  on  which  most  of  the  classical 
work  on  the  effect  of  drugs  has  been  done,  all  of  our  measurements 
show  conspicuously  little  effect  of  practice.  Least  affected  are  the 
latency  of  the  lid-reflex  and  the  angle  velocity  of  the  eye-movements. 

CORRELATION  OF  THE  VARIOUS  MEASUREMENTS  WITH 
THE  AVERAGE. 

Of  practical  as  well  as  of  theoretical  interest  is  the  question  which  of 
the  various  measurements  shows  the  closest  correspondence  with  the 
average  performance  of  the  various  subjects.  This  is  of  importance, 
in  the  first  place,  in  the  effort  to  estimate  the  relative  value  of  the 
different  measurements  as  an  indicator  of  individual  differences.  It  is 
of  importance,  in  the  second  place,  as  an  indicator  of  the  central  ten- 
dency of  the  effects  of  alcohol,  if  there  is  any  such  thing.  In  table  50 
we  give  the  variations  of  the  several  normal  subjects  from  the  average 
of  the  group  in  the  several  kinds  of  measurements. 

A  plus  sign  (-f-)  before  a  value  in  table  50  shows  that  the  individual's 
performance  in  that  test  after  alcohol  varied  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  average  of  the  group,  but  more  in  amount.  Conversely,  a  minus 
sign  ( — )  shows  that  the  individual's  performance  after  alcohol  showed 
less  change  than  the  average  of  the  group  or  that  it  was  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Thus  the  signs  of  the  values  entered  opposite  Subject  II 
show  that  in  all  but  two  tests  the  effect  of  alcohol  was  greater  on  this 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS. 


263 


subject  than  on  the  average  of  the  group.  Subject  III,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  affected  by  alcohol  less  than  the  average  of  the  group  hi  all 
but  one  case.  On  this  basis  it  would  be  possible  to  arrange  our  normal 
subjects  in  a  series  according  to  their  susceptibility  to  the  depressing 
effects  of  alcohol.  The  total  position  of  each  individual  with  respect 
to  the  average  of  the  group  is  shown  in  the  extreme  right-hand  column. 
The  several  values  may  be  regarded  as  an  index  to  the  personal 
equation  of  each  subject  with  respect  to  the  particular  process  which 
is  involved.  The  value  at  the  extreme  right  thus  becomes  a  sort  of 
alcohol  coefficient  of  the  individual.  Of  course  these  particular  values 
are  entirely  relative,  i.  e.,  relative  to  the  rest  of  the  group  and  to  the 
kind  of  measurements.  But  if  the  number  of  subjects  and  the  kinds  of 
measurements  were  sufficiently  numerous  the  deviation  of  the  individ- 
uals from  the  average  would  approximate  a  true  coefficient.  It  seems 

TABLE  50. — Variations  from  the  average  measurements  shown  by  the  individual  subjects  as 
calculated  from  the  perceniile  effects  of  alcohol. 


Subject. 

Patellar 
reflex. 

Lid-     |    Eye- 
reflex,     reaction. 

Word- 
reaction. 

Memory. 

Faradic 
thresh- 
old. 

Finger- 
move- 
ments. 

Eye- 
move- 
ments. 

Average. 

II 

+  10 

-r|  +9 

+6 

+  5 

+18 

-  2 

+  2 

+5.1 

III 

+  16 

-  6 

-1 

-  8 

-  9 

-14 

-3.7 

IV 

-   5 

-  8 

+  7 

+  1      

+  11 

-  3 

+  5 

+1-1 

VI 

-13 

-  6 

-  6 

-3+8 

+  12 

+  1 

-1.0 

VII 

-  3 

+  7 

-  6 

+  1 

-13 

0 

+  2 

-  5 

-2.1 

IX 

+  8 

+  12 

+  7 

O 

-  5 

-29 

+  14 

+  11 

+2.0 

X 

-20 

+  10 

+3 

+  6 

+  18 

-10 

-10 

-0.4 

to  us  that  we  are  already  justified  in  using  our  average  percentile 
effects  of  alcohol  as  a  provisional  standard  for  the  estimation  of  the 
susceptibility,  not  only  of  our  present  subjects,  but  as  well  of  those 
subjects  that  may  serve  in  later  tests.  For  such  a  comparative  esti- 
mate, however,  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  if  there  were  some  process 
whose  measurement  might  be  taken  to  represent  the  average  without 
the  laborious  and  time-consuming  measurements  of  our  entire  series 
of  tests.  In  the  effort  to  discover  if  any  of  our  values  would  qualify 
for  such  a  purpose  we  have  plotted  the  various  values  of  table  50  in 
figure  32. 

Doubtless  the  first  impression  from  figure  32  is  that  the  several  values 
are  quite  irregular  and  unrelated.  A  more  careful  inspection,  however, 
will  show  that  there  is  a  fairly  close  correspondence  between  the  curves 
for  similar  kinds  of  measurement,  especially  for  the  reciprocal  innerva- 
tion  of  the  finger  and  that  for  the  velocity  of  the  eye-movements. 
Furthermore,  both  of  these  curves  resemble  more  or  less  closely  the 
curve  for  the  total  results.  These  three  curves  are  not  identical.  One 
could  scarcely  expect  that,  even  if  they  were  curves  of  the  same  identical 
process.  But  the  eye-movement  curve  is  sufficiently  similar  to  the 


264 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


curve  for  the  total  results  so  that  subjects  above  the  average  and  below 
the  average  are  identical  in  both.  Moreover,  the  values  below  the 
average  are  closely  proportional  in  both.  Taken  together  with  the 
similarity  of  the  total  percentile  effects  of  alcohol  on  the  finger  and  eye 
movements,  these  resemblances  can  not  be  accidental.  They  strongly 
suggest  the  possibility  that  the  percentile  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  eye- 
movements  might  be  made  to  serve  a  very  practical  end  as  the  best 
available  test  of  the  susceptibility  of  the  individual  to  the  effects  of 


Subjects 


-30 


Fio.  32. — Variations  of  the  normal  subjects  from  the  average  of  the  group  for  various 
measurements. 


SUMMARIES   AND    CORRELATIONS.  265 

alcohol.  That  finger-movements  would  be  serviceable  in  considerably 
less  degree  for  a  general  test,  when  for  any  reason  the  eye-movements 
were  not  available,  is  obvious  if  one  remembers  the  gross  differences  in 
the  pre-experimental  practice  of  the  finger-movements  of  different 
individuals,  and  the  relative  ease  with  which  they  can  be  arbitrarily 
modified.  In  every  respect  we  believe  that  the  eye-movements  are  the 
most  reliable  and  the  most  important  measurements  of  the  group. 
They  are  least  open  to  arbitrary  modification,  vary  directly  with  the 
dose  of  alcohol,  come  closest  to  the  total  average  of  all  the  tests,  cover 
the  most  general  characteristics,  and  come  nearest  to  being  a  true  test 
of  the  individual's  susceptibility  to  the  effects  of  alcohol. 

Aside  from  the  practical  value  of  this  correspondence  between  the 
effects  of  alcohol  on  the  coordination  processes  and  the  average  effects, 
it  has  a  rather  far-reaching  theoretical  implication.  If,  in  all  the  diverse 
processes  which  we  have  measured,  the  coordination  processes  represent 
a  central  numerical  tendency,  it  must  be  that  they  correspond  in  some 
closer  way  than  the  rest  to  a  real  central  tendency  of  the  alcohol  effect. 
It  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  alcohol  change  in  the  average  per- 
formance of  our  subjects  is  a  function  of  central  coordination.  If  this 
indication  is  substantiated  by  later  investigations  it  should  prove  to  be 
not  only  of  the  utmost  importance  for  an  understanding  of  the  various 
manifestations  of  the  effect  of  alcohol  in  individual  cases  and  for  the 
general  phenomena  that  accompany  its  excessive  use,  but  it  would 
throw  a  flood  of  light  on  the  complex  organization  of  normal  psycho- 
physical  processes,  as  well  as  on  the  effects  of  fatigue  and  other  de- 
pressing agents. 

NUTRITION  LABORATORY  OF  THE 

CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON, 

Boston,  Massachusetts,  May,  28,  1915. 


APPENDIX  I. 

REPRINT  OF  THE  TENTATIVE  PLAN  FOR  A  PROPOSED  INVESTIGATION  INTO  THE  PHYSIO- 
LOGICAL ACTION  OF  ETHYL  ALCOHOL  IN  MAN.  PROPOSED  CORRELATIVE  STUDY  OF 
THE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  MAN. 

|  Nutrition  Laboratory,  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington,  Vila  Street, 
Boston,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A.,  January  1,  1913.] 

PROPOSED  TENTATIVE  PROGRAM  FOR  AN  INVESTIGATION  OF  THE  PHYSIO- 
LOGICAL EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL  TO  BE  CARRIED  OUT  IN  THE  NUTRITION 
LABORATORY  OF  THE  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON,  BOSTON, 
MASSACHUSETTS. 

It  is  a  well-established  fact  that  ethyl  alcohol,  when  taken  in  small  doses, 
the  total  amount  per  day  not  exceeding  75  grams,  is  completely  oxidized  in  the 
body  and  thereby  replaces  nutrients  as  a  source  of  energy.  This  fact  suggests 
a  large  number  of  experimental  problems  in  the  domains  of  physiology  and 
physiological  chemistry  which,  when  studied  by  the  newer  methods,  should 
give  results  of  fundamental  importance.  The  calorimetric  researches  of 
Professor  Atwater  and  his  associates  in  Middletown,  Connecticut,  were 
extended  over  long  periods,  usually  of  24  hours.  The  evidence  regarding 
the  rapidity  of  the  combustion  of  alcohol  is  very  uncertain  and  it  therefore 
seems  desirable  to  again  study  this  source  of  energy  and  to  determine  if  possi- 
ble its  relation  to  severe  muscular  work. 

The  Nutrition  Laboratory  is  especially  well  fitted  for  studying  problems 
regarding  body  temperature,  the  respiratory  exchange,  and  calorimetry,  both 
during  rest  and  during  severe  muscular  work.  Furthermore,  with  the  recent 
introduction  of  the  string  galvanometer  and  photographic  registration  appara- 
tus, many  observations  which  have  hitherto  never  been  made  of  the  influence 
upon  physiological  processes  of  the  ingestion  of  alcohol  may  be  accurately 
recorded.  Concurrently,  there  has  been  established  in  the  Nutrition  Labora- 
tory an  equipment  for  psychophysical  studies  based  upon  the  investigations 
of  Professor  Raymond  Dodge.  The  extensive  research  on  the  metabolism 
during  severe  muscular  work  carried  out  at  the  Nutrition  Laboratory  during 
the  winter  of  1911-1912  by  Dr.  E.  P.  Cathcart  has  considerably  illuminated 
our  knowledge  of  the  metabolism  under  these  conditions,  and  the  possibility 
of  altering  the  metabolism  by  the  ingestion  of  varying  amounts  of  alcohol 
should  prove  a  most  practical  field  for  research. 

Believing  that  a  fundamental  investigation  by  modern  technique  of  the 
influence  of  moderate  amounts  of  alcohol  upon  the  body  processes  is  of  great 
importance,  it  is  planned  to  begin  such  a  study  in  the  fall  of  1913.  In  accord- 
ance with  plans  which  have  been  formulating  during  the  last  two  or  more  years, 
I  have  prepared  an  outline  for  this  research  which  I  propose  to  submit  to  the 
leading  physiologists  throughout  the  world,  many  of  whom  I  shall  personally 
see  on  a  forthcoming  tour  of  Europe.  It  is  my  hope  to  secure  from  these  men 
adverse  criticism  of  the  plan,  together  with  suggestions  for  any  changes  or 
additions  which  may  seem  desirable,  so  that  on  my  return  a  revised  schedule 
can  be  prepared  which  can  truthfully  be  said  to  meet  the  consensus  of  opinion 
of  practically  all  physiologists  and  physiological  chemists.  If  this  plan  can  be 
successfully  carried  out,  the  investigation  ought  to  be  undertaken  under  the 
best  auspices  and  with  the  most  careful  planning  of  any  alcohol  investigation 
thus  far  attempted.  The  resources  of  the  Laboratory  can  be  devoted  to  this 
investigation  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  satisfy  the  majority  of  scientists 


APPENDIX   I.  267 

as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  results  obtained.     The  investigation  may  require  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  time  for  a  number  of  years. 

In  thus  preparing  this  elaborate  program,  there  is  not  the  slightest  desire 
to  preempt  any  portion  of  the  field,  for,  as  Professor  Lusk  recently  said:  "The 
importance  of  the  problem  is  too  great  not  to  have  the  work  repeated  in  as 
large  a  measure  as  possible  in  at  least  two  different  laboratories." 

I  shall  appreciate  most  fully  any  adverse  criticisms  that  you  may  see  fit  to 
make  of  this  program.  Any  additions  to  it  will  be  most  gratefully  received, 
and  obviously  full  credit  will  be  given  for  such  suggestions. 

Will  you  not  kindly  send  to  this  laboratory  copies  of  such  reprints  as  you 
have  available  bearing  in  any  way  upon  the  subject  here  outlined.  Such 
reprints  will  materially  lighten  our  work  and  insure  a  correct  and  adequate 
consideration  of  your  own  researches. 

The  investigation  will  be  undertaken  primarily  to  establish  the  important 
physiological  relationships  existing  between  the  ingestion  of  alcohol  and  the 
metabolism  and  the  activities  of  the  body  functions. 

As  an  important  correlative  investigation,  it  is  planned  to  carry  out  simul- 
taneously an  investigation  on  the  psychological  effects  of  alcohol,  employing 
the  technique  that  will  make  the  results  as  objective  as  possible. 

The  program  for  the  psychological  study  to  accompany  this  research  has 
been  prepared  by  Professor  Raymond  Dodge,  the  experimental  psychologist 
of  the  Nutrition  Laboratory. 

FRANCIS  G.  BENEDICT. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL  PROGRAM. 

I.  Subjects  (numerous  in  each  class): 

1.  Non-users  of  alcohol. 

2.  Moderate  occasional  users. 

3.  Habitual  drinkers  (exceeding  30  c.c.  absolute  alcohol  per  day). 

4.  Excessive  drinkers  (with  whom  the  effects  of  abstinence  should  be  likewise  studied). 

II.  Alcohol  doses.     Controls  if  possible  under  conditions  in  which  the  subject  will  not  know 

when  alcohol  is  administered! 

1.  Ethyl  alcohol  in  various  forms. 

Pure  alcohol,  distilled  spirits,  wines,  champagne,  beers,  ales,  and  hard  cider  should 

be  used. 

The  variation  in  effects  of  the  different  kinds  of  liquors,  if  any,  to  be  determined  on  one 
or  two  simple  physiological  or  metabolic  processes.  If  the  effects  in  the 
above  are  not  found  directly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  absolute  alco- 
hol present,  this  fact  should  be  elaborated  in  a  subsequent  research,  and 
this  present  investigation  should  adhere  to  pure  ethyl  alcohol  +  water. 

2.  Doses,  amounts. 

a.  One  single  dose,  varying  amounts. 

b.  Repeated  doses  at  varying  intervals. 

3.  How  administered. 

a.  By  mouth  (drinking). 

b.  By  mouth  (stomach  tube). 

c.  Rectal  enema. 

d.  Inhalation  of  alcohol  vapor.     (Leonard  Hill.) 

e.  By  the  skin. 

Immerse  hand  or  arm  in  vessel  (arm  plethysmograph)  containing  moderately 
dilute  alcohol.  Is  there  any  cutaneous  absorption? 

Perhaps  stimulate  cutaneous  circulation  by  massage  or  electricity  and  note 
alcohol  absorption. 

4.  When  administered. 

a.  Empty  stomach  (cocktail)  between  meals  drinking. 
6.  With  food. 

1.  With  protein. 

2.  With  fats. 


268  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

II.  Alcohol  doses — continued. 

4.  When  administered — continued, 
b.  With  food— continued. 

3.  With  carbohydrates. 

4.  With  condiments. 

5.  With  glucose  or  nutritive  enemata. 

6.  After  or  with  a  very  hearty  meal,  i.  e.,  when  stimulated  by  large  amount* 

of  protein,  and  by  large  amounts  of  food  with  little  protein  or  little 
stimulation. 
r.   During  fatigue. 

1.  Mental  fatigue. 

2.  Physical  fatigue. 

d.  During  sleep  (wake  up  from  sound  sleep  and  take  dose  and  sleep  afterwards) . 

III.  Absorption  of  alcohol  : 

1 .  Absorption  rate. 

a.  From  stomach.    After  introduction  into  stomach,  use  stomach  pump.    (Lavage.) 

b.  From  colon.     After  enemata,  irrigate,  determining  alcohol  in  residue  after  vary- 

ing lengths  of  time. 

c.  By  digestive  tract  vs.  by  respiratory  tract.     Which  is  quicker?     Results  to  be 

noted  by  respiratory  exchange.     (Leonard  Hill.) 

2.  Completeness  of  absorption  to  be  ascertained. 
No  alcohol  in  urine,  feces,  etc.? 

3.  Absorption  by  skin  to  be  tested. 

IV.  Circulation : 

1.  Heart-beat  and  pulse. 

a.  Graphic  tracings  by  sphygmograph. 
Radial  artery. 
Carotid  artery. 
Capillary  plethysmograph. 
Electro-cardiograms. 

Studying  changes  in  the  character  and  in  rate  of  propagation  of  pulse-waves. 
Effect  of  irritation  of  the  stomach  on  the  heart-beat. 
6.  Pulse-rate. 

(1)  Resting  subject,  nuchtern,  lying  quietly  until  pulse  has  reached  minimum 

level  before  alcohol  is  administered. 

(a)  Use  minute  pulse  as  unit. 

(b)  Use  pulse  in  two  respiratory  rhythms  as  a  unit  (electro-cardiogram). 

(2)  During  sleep,  if  possible. 

(3)  During  muscular  work. 

(a)  Riding  a  bicycle  ergometer  at  definite  rate  of  revolution  and  degree  of 
resistance.     Ride  till  pulse  constant,  then  take  alcohol  while  riding. 

(b)  Is  maximum  pulse  level  affected  by  alcohol  taken  just  prior  to  muscular 

work?    Time  to  reach  same  or  actual  level. 

(c)  Is  time  of  return  to  minimum  pulse  lying  down  after  work  altered?     IB 

actual  level  after  work  altered? 

(4)  During  various  forms  of  mental  activity. 

2.  Vasomotor  reactions. 

a.  Plethysmograph  observations. 
6.  Blood-pressure. 

(1)  Resting. 

(2)  Severe  muscular  work. 

Quasi-continuous  records  (Erlanger  sphygmomanometer).     After  rectal 
administration. 

c.  Note  alteration  in  cutaneous  circulation. 

Is  parallelism  noted  in  temperature  curves  from  rectum,  groin,  axilla  affected? 
(Also  skin  temperature  curve  if  possible.)     (See  Body  temperature.) 

d.  Effect  of  alcohol  on  splanchnic  circulation.     Rapidity  of  stomach  and  intestinal 

movements.     (See  Digestion.) 

3.  Rate  of  blood  flow   (Krogh.) 


APPENDIX   I. 

IV.  Circulation — continued. 
4.  Blood. 

a.  Morphology. 

b.  Blood  gases. 

Note  effect  of  alcohol  on  tissue  respiration.     Is  dissociation  curve  of  blood 
changed? 

V.  Respiration: 

1.  Respiratory  center. 

Does  alcohol  affect  the  sensitivity  of  the  respiratory  center  (Lindhard)? 

2.  Alveolar  air. 

Does  alcohol  affect  the  alveolar  air? 

a    By  reason  of  respiratory  center  changes  or 

b.  By  affecting  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood? 

3.  Volume  of  lungs. 

Does  alcohol  affect  elasticity  of  bronchial  passage  or  alveoli? 
a.  Tidal  air. 
6.  Vital  capacity,  etc. 

c.  Dead  space  in  breathing. 

4.  Respiration-rate,  depth,  rhythm. 

Spirometer  tracings  under  all  conditions  (best  done  in  connection  with  experiments 
on  gaseous  exchange). 

5.  Rich  oxygen  mixtures. 

Is  respiratory  quotient  altered  by  breathing  oxygen-rich  mixtures,  when  the 
(easily  and  rapidly?)  oxidizable  alcohol  is  present?  (Pulmonary  combus- 
tion.) 

6.  Holding  the  breath. 

Does  alcohol  alter  "breaking  point"— 

a.  After  breathing  high  oxygen? 

b.  After  forced  deep  breathing? 

Paying  special  attention  to  inhaling  oxygen  containing  alcohol  vapor.  (Leonard 
Hill.) 

VI.  Digestion  and  secretion  : 

1.  Motibility  of  stomach. 

a.  X-ray  studies. 

b.  Effect  of  alcohol  on  rapidity  of  movements  and  continuance  of  movements. 

c.  Hunger.     (Cannon,  Carlson.) 

2.  Diuresis. 

VII.  Nutrition  (Metabolism): 

1.  Alcohol  and  general  and  total  metabolism. 
Effect  on  character  of  katabolism. 

a.  Respiratory  quotient  as  index. 

If  man  at  rest  on  high  carbohydrate  diet  on  preceding  days  has  respiratory  quo- 
tient nuchtern  of  0.90,  how  will  alcohol  ingestion  affect  the  respiratory 
quotient? 

Is  there  a  selective  combustion  for  alcohol?  If  so,  respiratory  quotient  should 
approach  0.666. 

b.  If  a  niichtern  quotient  of  0.78  is  obtained  by  regulation  of  diet  on  preceding 

days  and  alcohol  +  sugar  is  given,  will  quotient — 

(1)  Rise,  indicating  prevailing  carbohydrate  combustion? 

(2)  Or  fall,  indicating  prevailing  combustion  of  alcohol? 

c.  Relative  combustion  rates  of  alcohol  and  various  sugars  as  determined  by  above 

method.     What  amount  of  various  sugars  will  offset  the  ingestion  of 
alcohol  to  prevent  lowering  the  quotient? 
Effect  on  amount  of  katabolism  and  energy  output. 
o.  Series  of  nuchtern  experiments  with  respiration  apparatus,  subject  very  quiet, 

pulse  minimum,  etc. 
Then  alcohol  and  note  effect  on  total  katabolism  on — 

(1)  Carbon-dioxide  production. 

(2)  Oxygen  absorption. 


270  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

VII.  Nutrition  (Metalwlism)— continued. 

1 .  Alcohol  and  general  total  metabolism — continued. 

This  experiment  can  be  advantageously  made  simultaneous  with  observationH 

on  pulse,  temperature,  and  respiration. 
Is  intensity  of  effect  proportional  to  dose? 
Is  duration  of  effect  proportional  to  dose? 
For  example,  will  a  50-gram  dose  double  the  effect  on  the  katabolism  noted  by  a 

25-gram  dose,  or  will  it  simply  prolong  it  twice  as  long? 

b.  If  any  effect  on  metabolism,  is  there  a  compensatory  effect  later,  i.  f.,  IH  there 

an  after-effect?    What  is  its  nature? 

c.  Protein  ingestion  results  in  a  greatly  stimulated  katabolism. 

What  is  effect  of  alcohol  on  this  increase?  Study  effect  on  rapidity  of  beginning 
of  initial  increase,  intensity  of  rise,  prolongation  of  effect,  and  return  to 
normal  base-line. 

d.  Ingestion  of  cane  sugar  or  levulose  likewise  increases  noticeably  the  total  katab- 

olism. 
Has  alcohol  any  effect  on  this  increase? 

2.  Alcohol  and  carbohydrate  and  fat  metabolism. 
Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  tolerance  of  various  sugars. 

Influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  amount  of  reducing  material  in  the  urine  (Peters's 

method). 
Study  this  from  the  standpoint  of  the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  oxidative  powers 

of  the  body.     If  alcohol  given  simultaneously  with  sugars  and  alcohol 

burned  first,  then  possible  lowering  of  sugar  tolerance.    To  what  degree? 

Are  various  sugars  affected  differently? 

3.  Acidosis. 

a.  Meat-fat  diet  or  non-carbohydrate  diet  induces  an  acidosis  in  normal  man. 

(1)  Will  alcohol  ingestion  retard  or  hasten  the  onset  of  the  acidosis? 

(2)  In  such  an  acidosis  what  is  effect  of  alcohol  ingestion? 

(3)  Alcohol  +  large  amounts  of  protein  in  an  acidosis.     Is  increased  metab- 

olism due  to  protein  ingestion  plus  the  increased  metabolism  of  acidosis 
affected  by  the  alcohol? 
Will  the  body  burn  alcohol  and  facilitate  the  storage  of  the  de-aminized 

portions  of  the  protein  molecule? 
6.  Alveolar  air  and  respiration  volume. 

By  Haldane's  apparatus  and  by  the  spirometer  on  the  universal  respiration 
apparatus  study  the  relationship  between  alcohol  ingestion  and  the  alveo- 
lar air  in  acidosis,  also  the  respiratory  volume. 

4.  Protein  metabolism. 

a.  Nitrogen  output. 

Probably  affected  by  alcohol  diuresis. 
If  an  increase,  is  it  due  to — 

(1)  Washing  out,  or 

(2)  Increased  cell  katabolism? 

Controls  should  be  made  with  distilled  water  diuresis. 
Nitrogen  partition  in  blood  may  be  studied  by  Folin's  methods. 
6.  Purine  metabolism. 

(1)  Uric  acid  in  blood. 

By  Folin's  new  colorimetric  method;  study  effect  of  alcohol  on  uric  acid 
in  blood. 

(2)  Urine.    On  purine-free  diet. 

With  large  volumes  of  urine  by  diuresis  produced  by  alcohol  and  control 
by  drinking  large  amounts  of  water. 

(3)  Does  alcohol  ingestion  alter  exogenous  or  endogenous  purine  metabolism? 

(Beebe.) 
c.  Effect  of  alcohol  on  the  nitrogen  partition  and  the  total  N  balance  on — 

(1)  Starch-cream  diet. 

(2)  Protein-rich  mixed  diet. 

(3)  Meat-fat  diet.     (Kayser's  work.) 


APPENDIX    I.  271 

VII.  Nutrition  (Metabolism) — continued. 
4.  Protein  metabolism — continued. 

d.  After-effect  of  severe  muscular  work  on  N  output.     Is  it  affected  by  alcohol 

ingestion? 

Is  it  exaggerated  or  not? 

Compare  also  N  partition  under  these  conditions, 
o.  Intermediary  metabolism. 

a.  Carbonaceous  material  in  urine. 

Any  change  in  character  of  solids  in  urine. 

C  :  N  ratio.         Cal :  N  ratio. 

A  possible  index  of  a  perturbed  intermediary  metabolism  (Higgins  and  Bene- 
dict). 
6.  Energy  metabolism. 

a.  Muscle  tonus.     Is  it  altered?     Muscle  hardness.     (Exner.) 

b.  As  muscular  work  demands  a  rapid  oxidation  of  material,  increases  the  ventila- 

tion of  the  lungs,  quickens  the  circulation,  and  there  is  in  part  at  least  a 
selective  combustion  of  carbohydrate,  a  series  of  experiments  to  study 
the  oxidation  of  alcohol  by  the  body  under  the  influence  of  intense  mus- 
cular activity  is  of  fundamental  importance. 

(1)  Is  there  a  selective  combustion  for  alcohol  during  severe  muscular  work? 
With  no  alcohol  the  respiratory  quotient  always  tends  to  rise  during 
severe  work.     If  alcohol  is  burned  in  preference  to  protein,  fat,  or  carbo- 
hydrates, the  quotient  would  be  markedly  lowered. 

(2)  When  alcohol  and  carbohydrates  are  ingested  and  muscular  work  follows, 

is  the  metabolism  chiefly  of  carbohydrate,  with  high  quotient  or  of  alcohol 
with  low  quotient? 

(3)  In  a  body  depleted  of  glycogen  by  severe  muscular  work — 

(o)  Is  the  carbohydrate  first  stored  if  fed  together  with  alcohol,  i.e.,  does 
the  respiratory  quotient  remain  low? 

(b)  When  alcohol  is  given  is  there  any  evidence  of  formation  of  glycogen 
from  either  protein  or  fat  to  replace  the  store,  the  maintenance-combus- 
tion being  from  alcohol? 

(4)  Does  muscular  work  increase  the  capacity  of  the  body  to  burn  alcohol? 
To  what  extent? 

Maximum  amount  burned? 

During  muscular  work  are  larger  amounts  tolerated  before  signs  (incip- 
ient) of  intoxication  appear? 

(5)  Is  appearance  of  "second  wind"  quickened  or  retarded  by  alcohol  inges- 

tion? 

(6)  After-effects  of  muscular  work  as  influenced  by  alcohol? 

(o)  Rapidity  of  return  to  normal  metabolism. 

Is  rate  of  return  altered,  i.  e.,  does  alcohol  help  out  on  the  rapidity  of 
recuperation? 

Is  pulse  base-line  lower  or  the  same  after  work  as  without  alcohol? 

Do  alcohol  and  glucose  superimpose  their  effects  on  after-work  period 
or  is  glucose  stored  and  alcohol  burned?  Is  a  larger  amount  of 
alcohol  burned  per  hour  after  work  when  glycogen  supply  is  low? 

(7)  Heart-beat,  character  of  wave,  etc.,  after  severe  muscular  work.     Does 

alcohol  alter  it? 
Electro-cardiograms,  etc. 

(8)  Intensity  of  work.     Capacity  for  work.     Endurance. 

Is  it  affected?  Can  subject  do  more  or  less  with  alcohol?  Maximum 
working  capacity.  Bicycle ergometer  sprint!!  How  long  and  how  high 
revolutions  per  minute?  Is  the  efficiency  of  the  body  as  a  machine 
based  upon  the  rate  of  speed  with  a  constant  load  altered  by  taking 
alcohol?  Any  compensating  after-effects? 

In  a  prolonged  fatigue  experiment,  i.  e.,  riding  strong  pace  and  load.  How 
test  endurance?  Ratio  of  external  muscular  work  and  total  energy 
output? 


272 


PSYCHOLOGICAL    KKKKCTS    o]-     ALCOHOL. 


VII.  Nutrition  (Metabolism)— continual 
7.  Heat  regulation. 

a.  On  resting  subject.     Secure  normal  diurnal  variation,  •   <  .  after  lying  down  for 
some  time  to  avoid  temperature  rise  due  to  muscular  activity. 

(1)  Does  alcohol  administration  alter  character  of  the  curve  taken  from  min- 

ute to  minute?     Rectal  temperature  by  thermo-element. 

(2)  Body-temperature  rise  produced  by  muscular  work. 
Is  it  affected  in  intensity  or  time  by  alcohol? 

(3)  Body-temperature  fall  after  work, 
(o)  Rapidity  of  fall. 

(b)  Level  after  work. 

(4)  Sensitivity  to  temperature.     Local  plotting  of  skin  area  to  temperature 

reaction.     (Tigerstedt's  lab.  technique.)     Is  physiological  zero  altered? 
(Aesthesiometer  tests  should  be  of  interest.) 

(5)  Reaction  to  exposure  to  cold  air  15°  C. 
Shivering  keeps  up  temperature. 

Will  shivering  take  place  after  alcohol  is  given? 

Get  body-temperature  curve  of  subject  and  expose  to  cold  air  by  dis- 
robing. Is  curve  altered? 

Is  alcohol  given  before  it  is  altered? 

Same  experiments  on  drunken  man.  What  effect  of  disrobing  on  tem- 
perature curve? 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  PROGRAM. 
[PREPARED  BY  RAYMOND  DODGE,  EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOLOGIST  OF  THE  NUTRITION  LABORATORY.] 


It  is  assumed  without  discussion  that  any 
complete  investigation  of  the  effects  of  the 
ingest  ion  of  ethyl  alcohol  must  include  not 
only  its  immediate  and  remote  effects  on  the 
general  metabolism  of  the  body,  but  also, 
as  far  as  possible,  its  effects  on  special  tissues 
that  are  influenced  in  any  peculiar  way  by 
that  particular  kind  of  alcohol. 

It  seems  obvious  further  that  among  those 
special  tissues,  nervous  tissue  and  the  end 
organs  of  sense  and  motion  are  of  particular 
importance  because  of  their  intimate  con- 
nection with  intelligence,  personality  and 
conduct,  and  their  bearing  on  social  welfare 
and  economic  efficiency.  Unfortunately, 
only  the  simpler  and  the  more  elementary 
neuro-muscular  processes  can  be  studied 
directly  by  present  laboratory  technique. 
Of  the  important  higher  mental  and  moral 
processes  there  is  at  present  scant  probability 
for  securing  expeiimental  data  of  scientific 
reliability.  Modifications  of  the  moral  con- 
trols, of  business  judgment,  tact  and  relia- 
bility, of  mental  stability  and  balance,  are 
not  experimentally  measurable  in  any  direct 
way.  They  must  be  studied,  if  at  all,  by 
some  indirect  method.  This  technical  de- 
fect is  a  serious  limitation  to  all  experimental 
investigations  of  the  psychological  effects  of 
the  ingestion  of  alcohol  since  it  is  in  precisely 
these  directions  that  general  experience  indi- 
cates that  the  effects  of  alcohol  are  probably 
moft  serious.  It  is  consequently  all  the 
more  necessary  to  choose  the  lines  of  direct 


investigation  with  experimental  tact  for 
probable  correlations.  The  direct  investi- 
gations must  not  only  be  reliable  in  them- 
selves, but  they  should  indicate  as  much  of 
the  higher  and  more  complex  mental  mech- 
anism as  possible.  Consequently,  of  the 
indefinite  number  of  expei  imental  facts  con- 
cerning elementary  processes  that  might  be 
collected,  actual  experimentation  should  be 
determined  by  the  following  principles: 

(1)  The  technique  must  be  scientifically 
adequate  to  the  precise  purpose  in  view  and 
reliable  with  respect  to  instrumental  con- 
stants, latency,  variability,  etc. 

(2)  Relatively  elementary  neuro-muscular 
processes  should  be  investigated   in  their 
simplest  forms  so  far  as  possible.     Complex 
processes  should  be  so  chosen  as  to  be  defi- 
nitely related  to  the  elementary  processes 
and  directly  or  indirectly  analyzable  into 
their  several  factors. 

(3)  All  experiments  should  directly  con- 
tribute to  a  systematic  analysis  of  neuro- 
muscular   processes   and    their   variations. 
The  real  value  of  an  adequate  test  consists 
in  its  correlations  or  possibility  of  correlation. 

(a)  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
there  should  be  the  highest  possible  com- 
parability of  data  obtained  from  different 
individuals  and  from  the  same  individuals 
under  different  conditions.  All  instrumental 
constants  should  be  known  and  the  technique 
should  be  reproducible. 


APPENDIX    I. 


273 


(6)  Unless  the  personal  peculiarities  and 
idiosyncracies  of  voluntary  attention  and 
effort  are  directly  the  subject  of  investiga- 
tion or  are  otherwise  capable  of  estimation, 
experiments  should  be  as  independent  as 
possible  of  the  caprice  of  the  subject.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  the  elementary  proc- 
esses. Uncontrolled  complex  tests,  such  as 
ergographic  experiments,  addition  and  multi- 
plication experiments,  are  particularly  ques- 
tionable. One  must  know  whether  decrease 
of  achievement  is  due  to  decreased  specific 
capacity  or  to  fatigue  of  general  psycho- 
logical controls,  such  as  interest  and  incen- 
tive. 

(c)  All  experiments  should  be  as  free  as 
possible  from  practice  effects.  Thoroughly 
practiced  processes  that  require  no  special 
training  should  be  chosen  wherever  possible. 
This  excludes  most  of  the  common  reaction 
experiments  except  for  a  few  trained  sub- 
jects. Under  all  circumstances  base-lines 
should  be  complete  enough  to  include  a 
measure  of  any  practice  effects  that  may 
develop. 


(d)  In  all  psychological  experiments  it  is 
desirable,  and  in  the  investigation  of  proc- 
esses subject  to  the  caprice  of  the  individual 
it  is  essential,  that  the  ingestion  of  alcohol 
of  one  subject  or  set  of  subjects  should  be 
rigidly  controlled  by  other  normal  subjects 
and  by  the  same  subjects  under  normal 
circumstances. 

(e)  I  believe  that  the  ingestion  of  alcohol 
should  be  masked  as  completely  as  possible. 
I  do  not  know  the  best  technique.     Sugges- 
tions on  this  matter  are  especially  requested. 

(/)  It  seems  desirable  also  to  obtain  quan- 
titative data  wherever  possible  of  remote 
n euro-muscular  effects;  especially  should 
this  be  studied  with  reference  to  the  deterio- 
ration of  memory  residua,  and  associations 
established  under  alcoholic  use,  and  con- 
versely. 

(</)  I  regard  it  as  extremely  important 
that  experiments  be  made  on  habitual  mod- 
erate and  excessive  users  of  alcohol  under 
abstinence.  It  seems  to  me  highly  important 
to  study  the  psycho-physiology  of  the  facts 
whose  extreme  form  is  represented  in  the 
mental  complex  by  craving. 


SECTION  I. — SENSITIVITY  or  THE  END  ORGANS  OF  SENSE  AND  MOTION. 


Since  all  stimuli  must  be  given  through 
the  end  organs  of  sense,  and  since  muscular 
contraction  is  the  mo?t  accessible  indicator 
of  nervous  action,  the  influence  of  alcohol 
on  the  organs  of  sense  and  motion  is  a  pri- 
mary, though  probably  not  a  very  important 
consideration. 

(a)  For  most  accurately  reproducible 
threshold  experiments  I  propose  the  use  of 
Martin's  electrical  threshold  apparatus  and 
technique.  Aesthesiometric  and  pain  thres- 
hold tests  depend  on  a  large  number  of  vari- 
ables extremely  difficult  to  control.  Sound, 
taste,  smell,  and  muscular  sense  thresholds 
do  not  seem  to  be  of  sufficient  probable  sig- 
nificance to  warrant  special  investigation. 
The  pain  threshold,  on  the  contrary,  is  not 
unimportant .  It  may  be  that  many  changes 
in  the  higher  complexes  depend  on  modified 
sensitivity  to  pain.  Suggestions  for  tech- 
nique would  be  especially  welcome. 

(6)  Since  vision  will  be  the  sense  most 
used  in  the  higher  tests  I  recommend  tests 
for  changes  in  visual  acuity,  preferably  the 
E  test,  after  proper  correction  of  the  subject 
for  astigmatism. 

(c)  The  following  muscle  conditions  should 
be  determined:  (1)  muscle  threshold  for 


electrical  stimulus  (Faradic  current) ;  (2)  fa- 
tigue and  recuperation.  The  development 
and  duration  of  relatively  permanent  muscle 
contraction  as  the  result  of  work.  I  propose 
the  use  of  reciprocal  innervation  of  the  anta- 
gonistics  of  the  middle  finger  moving  back 
and  forth  as  rapidly  as  possible  for  30",  a 
rest  of  5"  and  renewed  innervation  for  5". 
This  is  a  modification  of  the  tapping  test, 
eliminating  the  stop;  (3)  steadiness  of  muscle 
contraction,  either  visual  nystagmus  in 
lateral  fixation  or  direct  measurement  of 
involuntary  movements  of  the  hand; 
(4)  velocity  of  muscle  contraction.  In  order 
to  eliminate  voluntary  control  I  suggest 
photographic  registration  of  eye-movements, 
for  reasons  explained  in  "The  Ocular  Reac- 
tions of  the  Insane"1  by  Diefendorf  and 
Dodge;  (5)  the  corresponding  metabolic  de- 
mands should  be  measured  directly  or  by 
then-  effect  on  the  pulse-rate.  In  fact,  pulse- 
rate  should  be  taken  with  every  test.  I 
regard  this  as  of  the  utmost  importance,  as 
indicated  in  my  paper  on  "Mental  Work;"2 
(6)  most  of  these  muscle  and  threshold  ex- 
periments should  be  made  before  and  after 
severe  physical  work  and  periods  of  rest. 


*An  experimental  study  of  the  ocular  reactions  of  the  insane  from  photographic  records. 
1909,  31,  p.  451. 
'Psychol.  Review,  1913,  20,  p.  1. 


Brain, 


274 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL. 


SECTION  II. — LATENCY,  SENMTIVITT,  CONFIGURATION,  REFRACTORY  PHASE,  AND  RECUPERATION 
OF  THE  SIMPLE  REFLEXES. 


Since  the  entire  psychophysical  mechanism 
must  be  studied  as  a  complication  of  nervous 
arcs,  the  nervous  arc  should  be  studied  in  its 
simplest  form,  according  to  principle  (3),  i.  e., 
in  the  simple  reflexes.  The  refractory  phase 
may  be  of  peculiar  importance  in  connection 
with  the  problem  of  fatigability  and  recu- 
peration. Because  of  the  adequacy  of  the 
respective  techniques  I  suggest  particular 
study  of  the  knee-jerk  and  the  protective 
wink-reflexes. 

(1)  The  knee-jerk  should  be  measured  by 
muscle  thickening,  with  special  reference  to 
latent  time,  sensitivity,  height  and  configu- 
ration of  the  curve,  and  the  duration  of  its 


return  to  the  base-line  from  which  it  starts. 
For  reasons  described  in  my  "Systematic 
Exploration  of  the  Knee  Jerk"1  I  prefer  a 
pendulum  hammer  stimulus  and  direct  regis- 
tration of  the  muscle  curve;  (2)  the  protec- 
tive wink-reflex  should  be  studied  with  special 
reference  to  latent  time,  sensitivity,  height 
and  configuration  of  the  curve,  and  the 
duration  and  completeness  of  the  subsequent 
refractory  period.  For  reasons  described  in 
my  paper  on  the  "Refractory  phase  of  the 
protective  wink-reflexes"1  the  stimulus 
should  be  a  sound  stimulus  and  the  registra- 
tion should  be  photographic. 


SECTION  III. — COMPLICATED  REACTION  ARCH. 


Practiced  reactions  of  more  complex  arcs 
which  would  be  comparable  in  different  indi- 
viduals are  relatively  few.  I  suggest  (1)  eye- 
reactions  to  suddenly  appearing  peripheral 
visual  stimuli.  These  are  in  the  nature  of 
choice  reactions  and  demand  a  definite  space 
complication  of  the  muscular  response. 
They  are  thoroughly  practiced  for  all  normal 
adults  and  relatively  independent  of  the 
caprice  of  the  subject  (see  "Ocular  reactions 


of  the  insane  ").  (2)  Since  speech  is  the  best 
practiced  universal  (for  literates)  reaction, 
I  should  combine  these  records  of  the  eye- 
movements  with  speech-reactions,  naming 
the  letter  presented  (one  of  2  or  4),  as  carried 
out  in  my  "Experimental  study  of  visular 
fixation."'  (3)  I  believe  further  that  in 
specially  trained  individuals  their  regular 
business  reactions  should  be  studied  as  in  the 
Kraepelin  and  Aschaffenberg  experiments. 


SECTION  IV.— MEMORY 

Since  distinctively  mental  functions  chiefly 
involve  memory  and  association,4  some  ap- 
proved form  of  memory  and  association  tests 
should  be  used.  They  should  not  be  too 
tune-consuming  or  too  exacting  for  the  sub- 
ject, (a)  For  memory  I  suggest  the  speech 
reaction  to  a  "normal"  series  of  12  gradually 
appearing  words;  three  repetitions  of  the 
series  should  show  a  quantitative  persevera- 
tion  value  without  actually  learning  the 
series.  This  test  has  the  tentative  approval 
of  G.  E.  Miiller  (Gottingen).  (6)  Controlled 


AND  ASSOCIATION  TESTS. 

association  test  should  be  made  either  in  the 
form  of  Kraepelin  mathematical  tests  or 
some  similar  method.  Pulse-rate  must  be 
taken  with  these  tests.5  Free  association 
tests  for  the  possible  changes  in  the  character 
of  the  associates  should  be  made  with  special 
reference  to  time  of  response  and  pulse-rate. 
(e)  I  also  recommend  tests  on  the  rapidity  of 
reading  aloud,  including  photographic  regis- 
tration of  the  fixation  pauses  of  the  eyes 
(Dodge  and  Dearborn)  and  a  record  of  the 
pulse-rate. 


'A  systematic  exploration  of  a  normal  knee-jerk,  its  technique,  the  form  of  the  muscle  con- 
traction, its  amplitude,  its  latent  time,  and  its  theory.  Verworn's  Zeitsch.  f.  allg.  Physiol.. 
1910,  12,  p.  1. 

The  refractory  phase  of  the  protective  wink-reflex.     Am.  Journ.  Psychol.,  1913,  24,  p.  1. 

*An  experimental  study  of  visual  fixation.  Monograph  supplements  of  the  Psychol.  Review, 
8,  No.  4,  esp.  pp.  53-55. 

4A  working  hypothesis  for  inner  psychophysics.     Psycho).  Review,  1911,  18,  p.  167. 

'Mental  work.     A  study  in  psychodynamics.     Psychol.  Review,  1913,  20,  p.  1 . 


APPENDIX    I. 


275 


SECTION  V. 


Correlated  with  the  above  experiments 
there  should  be  some  investigation  of  the 
perseverance  of  the  subject,  i.  e.,  of  the  fatiga- 
bility  of  the  higher  psychological  controls 
involved  in  persistent  effort  and  prolonged 
voluntary  attention. 

(a)  In  connection  with  experiment  2, 
section  I,  I  propose  reciprocal  innervation  of 
one  finger  to  the  "breaking-point,"  i.  e., 
where  the  subject  stops.  This  might  be 
studied  in  connection  with  the  "breaking 
point"  of  inhibited  respiration. 

(6)  In  connection  with  photographic  regis- 
tration of  the  eye-movements,  I  propose 
persistent  fixation  of  a  given  mark  under 
experimental  change  of  the  visual  environ- 
ment. 

(c)  If  a  satisfactory  analysis  of  the 
McDougall  test  could  be  made,  I  should 
favor  its  use. 

The  above  outline  particularly  disclaims 
being  a  catalogue  of  all  mental  and  physio- 


logical investigations  that  might  be  under- 
taken with  scientific  profit.  Of  the  infinite 
number  of  possible  observations,  selection 
has  been  made:  first,  on  the  basis  of  tech- 
nique; second,  on  the  basis  of  simplicity  of 
the  elementary  processes;  and  third,  on  the 
basis  of  an  attempt  at  a  systematic  explora- 
tion of  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  psycho- 
physical  processes. 

The  purpose  in  printing  this  outline  is  that 
it  may  be  submitted  to  the  leading  physi- 
ologists, psychologists,  physiological  psy- 
chologists, neurologists,  and  neuro-patholo- 
gists  in  the  hope  that  we  may  have  the 
benefit  of  any  adverse  criticism  and  any 
suggestions  for  changes  or  additions  that 
may  occur  to  them.  It  is  particularly  de- 
sirable that  the  final  program  shall  meet  the 
consensus  of  opinion  of  experts  throughout 
the  world.  Naturally,  credit  for  suggestions 
and  changes  will  be  given  with  scrupulous 


APPENDIX  II. 

FAMILY  AND  PERSONAL  HISTORIES  OF  THE  SUBJECTS.' 
SUBJECT  II. 

Date.— September  23,  1913. 

Family  history. — Father,  American  (Scotch-Irish);  uncle,  hard  drinker; 
mother,  American  (English  descent) ;  brother,  hard  drinker;  father  and  mother 
married  31  years.  One  sister,  27  years  old. 

Does  not  know  whether  father  took  alcohol,  but  probably  did  in  last  two 
years  of  his  life,  during  illness.  Mother  took  practically  none;  wine  4  or  5 
times  a  year;  sisters  practically  none.  No  habitual  use  of  drugs  by  any 
member  of  family.  Grandfather  on  father's  side  died  in  "melancholia." 

Personal  data. — Age,  29  years;  height,  182.2  cm.;  weight,  74.8  kilos. 
Occupation,  student.  Sport,  gymnastics. 

Education. — Williams  College,  1905;  high  scholarship;  best  in  sciences, 
worst  in  languages. 

Memory. — Visual ;  fairly  quick ;  fairly  long  (fixed  if  seen) ;  fairly  responsive ; 
high  in  accuracy. 

Very  moderate  user,  in  part  for  practical  reasons;  does  not  care  for  alcoholic 
drinks.  Has  occasionally  taken  wine,  5  glasses  a  year,  at  banquets,  etc.,  with 
no  effect.  Largest  amount,  pint  bottle  of  blackberry  brandy  as  medicine, 
with  no  effect.  Last  use,  10  days  previous,  \\  glasses  wine  at  dinner.  Never 
intoxicated;  not  affected  by  amounts  taken. 

Tea  and  coffee. — Very  little  of  either;  occasionally  weak  coffee  for  hay  fever. 

Life  insurance. — Last  examined  in  1907.  Northwestern  Mutual  and  Con- 
necticut Mutual  Life  Insurance  Companies.  Accepted  by  both. 

SUBJECT  III. 

Date.— September  9,  1913. 

Family  history. — Father,  American;  mother,  American;  father  and  mother 
married  27  years.  One  sister,  22  years  old. 

None  of  the  family  take  alcohol  or  use  drugs  of  any  kind.  No  insanity  in 
the  family. 

Personal  data. — Age,  25  years;  height,  176.5  cm. ;  weight,  67.5  kilos.  Occu- 
pation, physician.  Sport,  tennis,  an  hour  at  a  time. 

Education. — Dartmouth  College,  1909,  and  Boston  University.  Tenth  in 
class  of  200  members.  No  special  preference  for  any  study. 

Memory. — Very  quick,  accurate,  responsive,  but  forgets  easily. 

Non-abstainer. — Drinks  beer,  a  quart  in  two  weeks;  no  effect  except  geniality. 
Largest  amount  of  alcoholic  liquor  taken,  about  1  pint  of  whisky  in  high- 
balls at  a  banquet ;  "  head  "  next  morning.  Last  use,  bottle  of  beer  September 
8.  Never  intoxicated. 

Quickly  affected  by  alcoholic  liquor.  It  produces  excitement,  though  sub- 
ject is  normally  quiet;  no  talkativeness,  but  a  feeling  of  happiness;  no  physical 
sensations;  does  not  affect  affection  or  temper;  effect  on  routine  work  not 
known;  no  effect  on  digestion;  occasionally  increases  the  flow  of  urine. 

Tea  and  coffee. — Uses  neither,  but  tobacco  in  excess. 

Life  insurance. — Examined  in  1903.  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company  of 
Montpelier.  Accepted. 

'The  histories  of  three  subjects  are  not  included  )>ecause  the  experimental  sessions  in  which 
they  served  were  too  few  for  statistical  treatment  with  the  group  (Subjects  I  and  V),  or  because  it 
proved  impracticable  to  carry  out  the  experimental  program  for  some  other  reason  (Subject  XIII). 
The  last  mentioned  was  a  hard  drinker  who  refused  to  give  us  non-alcohol  or  normal  days.  Th« 
first  two  broke  off  the  experiments  to  meet  business  engagements. 

276 


APPENDIX    II.  277 

SUBJECT  IV. 
September  25,  1913. 

Family  history. — Father,  American  (Scotch  descent);  mother,  American; 
father  and  mother  married  34  or  35  years.  Two  brothers,  33  and  32  years 
old.  Three  sisters,  all  younger. 

Father  takes  whisky  to  excess  at  the  end  of  the  week;  makes  him  ugly. 
Mother  takes  gin,  rarely  to  excess,  occasionally  at  period.  One  brother  heavy 
drinker;  no  special  kind  of  liquor;  drinks  frequently;  to  excess  once  a  week. 
Other  brother  moderate  drinker,  but  never  intoxicated.  Sisters  abstainers. 
No  insanity  in  family. 

Personal  data. — Age,  27  years;  height,  181.6  cm.;  weight,  73  kilos.  Occu- 
pation, student.  Sport,  football  coach. 

Education. — Colby  College.  Average  scholarship;  best  in  sciences,  worst 
in  languages. 

Memory. — Quick  and  accurate  when  he  remembers  at  all;  slow  in  response; 
does  not  retain  for  any  length  of  time. 

Non-abstainer. — Drinks  beer  three  or  four  times  a  week  at  dinner.  It  exhila- 
rates at  first,  but  later  makes  him  drowsy.  Largest  amount  taken,  2  or  3 
bottles  of  beer  and  fancy  drinks  at  a  banquet.  Last  taken  September  24,  1 
liter  of  beer  at  dinner.  Never  intoxicated;  makes  him  sick  first.  Can  take 
1  liter  of  beer  without  noticeable  effect. 

First  noticeable  effects  are  exhilaration,  though  subject  is  normally  quiet; 
more  talkative  than  usual,  normally  moderate  in  speech;  gives  feeling  of  happi- 
ness, though  normally  depressed.  No  peculiar  sensations  except  a  blurring  of 
vision.  No  effect  on  the  flow  of  ideas;  softens  the  temper;  produces  a  ten- 
dency to  looseness  of  morals;  no  effect  on  the  digestion  or  on  the  urine. 

Tea  and  coffee. — Two  cups  of  strong  coffee  a  day. 

Life  insurance. — Examined  in  1911.  Mutual  Benefit  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany of  New  Jersey.  Accepted. 

SUBJECT  VI. 

Date.— October  7,  1913. 

Family  history. — Both  father  and  mother  American,  Scotch  descent; 
married  28  years.  One  brother,  not  living,  21  years. 

None  of  the  family  take  alcohol  or  drugs.  There  is  no  insanity  in  the  family, 
and  no  alcoholism  in  the  collateral  branches. 

Personal  data.— Age,  25  years;  height,  164  cm.;  weight,  68  kilos.  Occupa- 
tion, student,  second  year  medical  school.  Sport,  walking  2  miles  a  day. 

Education.— Oklahoma  Agricultural  College.  Average  scholarship;  best  in 
biology,  worst  in  English  grammar. 

Memory.— Poor,  verbal.     Not  quick,  accurate,  long,  or  responsive. 

Non-abstainer.— Drinks  beer,  etc.,  at  banquets;  1  or  2  glasses  at  a  tune; 
effect,  stupefying.  Largest  amount  ever  taken,  10  or  12  glasses,  mixed  drinks, 
in  the  evening,  one  year  previous;  "attempted  to  get  drunk";  stupefying 
effect ;  only  time  ever  intoxicated.  Last  used,  October  3, 1913,  one  glass  of  beer. 
Two  glasses  of  beer  can  be  taken  on  a  full  stomach  without  noticeable  effect. 

First  noticeable  effects  are  drowsiness  and  unsteadiness.  Produces  no 
excitement,  though  subject  is  normally  nervous;  causes  talkativeness,  normally 
moderate  in  speech;  produces  a  feeling  of  elation,  normally  cheerful.  No 
peculiar  sensations.  Seems  to  increase  the  flow  of  ideas.  No  effect  on  the 
affections,  but  sweetens  the  temper.  Effect  on  routine  work  not  known,  as  he 
never  takes  it  when  working.  No  effect  on  morals.  One  glass  aids  digestion ; 
two  glasses  retard  it;  no  effect  upon  the  urine. 

Tea  and  coffee. — One  cup  strong  coffee  every  morning. 

Life  insurance— Examined  for  life  insurance  a  year  previous.  Northwestern 
Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company.  Accepted. 


278  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF    ALCOHOL. 

SUBJECT  VII. 

Date.— October  8,  1913. 

Family  history. — Father  and  mother  both  American ;  married  29  years.  One 
brother,  22  years. 

Neither  the  father  nor  the  mother  takes  alcohol,  nor  the  brother  so  far  as 
known.  No  habitual  use  of  drugs  by  any  member  of  the  family.  Paternal 
grandmother  had  psychosis  at  menopause. 

Personal  data. — Age,  26  years;  height,  177.8  cm.;  weight,  67.5  kilos.  Occu- 
pation, student,  medical  school.  Sport,  tennis. 

Education.— Grinnell  College,  1907.  Scholarship,  Phi  Beta  Kappa.  Best 
in  sciences,  worst  in  languages. 

Memory. — Good  "  crammer."  Fairly  quick,  more  accurate  than  the  average, 
quick  to  memorize  but  as  quickly  lost,  responsiveness  above  average. 

Non-abstainer. — Drinks  beer  (not  more  than  a  pint  at  a  time)  irregularly ; 
acts  as  a  "narcotic,  more  sedative  than  stimulating."  Largest  amount  ever 
taken,  2  quarts  of  beer  at  an  evening  party;  "stimulation  from  social  sugges- 
tion." Last  used,  October  4,  1913,  400  c.c.  of  beer  in  the  afternoon;  no  effects 
observed.  Intoxicated  once,  January  1911;  took  1  quart  of  beer,  \\  glass 
whisky,  and  \  glass  port.  Can  take  one  glass  (\  pint)  of  beer  after  supper 
without  noticeable  effect. 

First  noticeable  effects,  acts  as  narcotic;  tends  to  talkativeness  if  more  is 
taken;  produces  a  feeling  of  happiness;  when  subject  is  in  bed,  alcohol  pro- 
duces a  sensation  of  floating;  seems  to  make  the  ideas  flow  more  easily.  He 
becomes  mellower,  more  affectionate,  but  there  is  no  effect  upon  the  temper. 
Seems  to  help  physical  pain;  never  taken  for  mental  pain.  Feels  "like 
dancing  the  tango;"  sense  of  conventionality  lessened.  Only  physical  effect  is 
that  beer  sometimes  causes  fermentation. 

Tea  and  coffee. — Coffee  every  day,  not  too  strong;  seldom  tea. 

Life  insurance. — Examined  spring  of  1909.  Union  Central  Life  Insurance 
Company.  Accepted. 

SUBJECT  VIII. 

Date— October  9,  1913. 

Family  history. — Father,  American  (Scotch-Irish);  mother,  American 
(Pennsylvania  Dutch) ;  father  and  mother  married  in  1886.  Two  brothers, 
26  and  13  years;  one  sister,  17  years. 

Father  takes  beer  moderately,  not  with  meals.  Mellowing  effect;  intoxi- 
cated twice  a  year.  Mother  abstainer.  Older  brother,  moderate  amounts; 
younger  brother  and  sister,  abstainers.  No  habitual  use  of  drugs  by  any 
member  of  the  family.  No  insanity  in  the  family. 

Personal  data. — Age,  24  years;  height,  178.4  cm.;  weight,  74.8  kilos.  Occu- 
pation, student,  third  year  medical  school.  Sport,  walking  at  present,  3  miles 
a  day. 

Education. — University  of  California.  Scholarship,  high  honors.  Best  in 
sciences,  worst  in  mathematics  and  English. 

Memory. — Very  quick,  accurate,  not  very  long,  moderately  responsive. 

Total  abstainer. — Reasons,  more  particularly  moral,  but  also  scientific, 
practical,  and  family  (mother). 

At  10  years  of  age,  accidental  overdose  of  whisky.  Lost  equilibrium  on 
coming  home,  was  put  to  bed  and  was  sick  for  several  days.  Tried  beer  since, 
but  did  not  like  the  taste. 

Tea  and  coffee. — Moderate  amount  of  coffee  about  four  times  a  week. 

Life  insurance. — Never  examined.  Medical  examination,  June  1913; 
jaundice,  at  City  Hospital J 


APPENDIX   II.  279 

SUBJECT  IX. 

Date.—  October  10,  1913. 

Family  history.  —  Father,  South  German;  mother,  South  German.  Father 
and  mother  married  in  1890.  One  brother,  20  years  old. 

Father  takes  wine  and  beer,  1  bottle  at  a  time  in  the  evening;  no  effects 
observed.  Brother  takes  beer,  2  or  3  bottles  at  a  time.  No  habitual  use  of 
drugs,  no  nervous  or  mental  disease,  and  so  far  as  known,  no  excessive  use  of 
alcohol  in  family  history. 

Personal  data.  —  Age,  22  years;  height,  174  cm.;  weight,  63.5  kilos,  in  July 
1913,  after  losing  10  kilos.  Occupation,  student,  dental  school.  Sport,  foot- 
ball; tennis  previously. 

Education.  —  Gymnasium,  Wiesbaden.  Scholarship,  average.  Best  hi  gym- 
nastics and  languages,  worst  in  mathematics. 

Memory.  —  Rather  quick,  usually  accurate,  forgets  quickly,  no  special  diffi- 
culties in  response. 

Non-abstainer.  —  Drinks  \  to  1  bottle  of  wine  or  beer  a  day  now,  but  pre- 
viously 3  bottles  a  day,  in  the  evening;  no  general  effects.  Largest  amount 
taken,  4  bottles  beer  in  the  evening;  did  not  feel  intoxicated,  but  vomited. 
Last  use,  previous  evening  1  bottle  of  beer;  no  effects.  Never  intoxicated. 
2  or  3  liters  of  beer  could  be  taken  in  the  evening  without  noticeable  effects. 
Sometimes  produced  vomiting  next  day.  In  excess  of  2  or  3  liters  it  acted  as  a 
diuretic. 

Tea  and  coffee.  —  One  or  the  other  taken  at  every  meal;  amount,  one  cup. 

Life  insurance.—  Examined,  July  1913.  Stuttgarter  Lebensversicherung. 
Accepted. 

SUBJECT  x. 


February  10,  1914. 

Family  history.  —  Father  and  mother,  American,  married  in  1868.  Two 
brothers,  41  and  39  years. 

Not  known  as  to  whether  father  took  alcohol;  probably  took  small  amounts 
rarely.  Mother,  abstainer.  One  brother,  abstainer;  other  probably  does  not 
take  alcohol.  No  knowledge  of  habitual  use  of  drugs  by  any  member  of  the 
family.  No  nervous  or  mental  disease  or  excessive  use  of  alcohol  in  the  family 
history. 

Personal  data.—  Age,  43  years;  height,  182.9  cm.;  weight,  85  kilos.  Occu- 
pation, scientist.  Sport,  no  systematic  exercise. 

Education.  —  Harvard  University.  Scholarship,  A.  Best  in  sciences,  worst 
in  languages. 

Memory.—  Verbal,  good.  Memory  for  poetry  poor;  memory  for  figures 
phenomenal. 

Abstainer,  but  not  total.  Reasons,  moral,  scientific,  practical,  social. 
Occasionally  takes  small  amount  of  wine  at  dinners.  Effects  rarely  noticeable  ; 
has  produced  flushing,  with  a  distinct  desire  for  fresh  air;  is  not  loquacious 
by  design  ;  never  appears  to  affect  reasoning.  Largest  amount  ever  taken  and 
last  time  used,  December  15,  1913,  2  glasses  of  champagne  at  dinner.  Never 
intoxicated. 

First  noticeable  effects:  No  noticeable  excitement  or  increased  flow  of  ideas; 
so  far  as  known,  does  not  cause  talkativeness  or  feeling  of  happiness,  or  affect 
routine  work,  the  sense  of  propriety,  the  affections,  or  the  urine.  No  effect  on 
the  digestion  has  been  observed.  Only  peculiar  sensation  observed  was  (once) 
the  flushing  referred  to. 

Tea  and  coffee.—  A  moderate  use  of  coffee;  two  cups  a  day. 

Life  insurance—  Last  examined,  1907.  Provident  Life  and  Trust  Company. 
Accepted  for  two  policies. 


280  PSYCHOLOGICAL   EFFECTS   OF   ALCOHOL. 

PSYCHOPATHIC  PATIENTS. 
SUBJECT  XI. 

Date.— March  24,  1914. 

Family  history. — Father  and  mother,  English;  date  of  marriage  unknown. 
Three  brothers,  four  sisters. 

Father  heavy  drinker,  often  intoxicated;  probably  drank  ale.  Mother, 
moderate  drinker;  takes  ale  and  porter;  never  intoxicated.  Brothers,  mod- 
erate drinkers;  three  or  four  drinks  a  year.  Sisters,  very  moderate  drinkers. 
Never  heard  of  an  habitual  use  of  drugs  by  any  member  of  the  family.  No 
nervous  or  mental  disease  or  the  excessive  use  of  alcohol  in  the  family  history 
was  reported. 

Personal  data. — Age,  51  years;  height,  161.3  cm.;  weight,  55.8  kilos.  Occu- 
pation, grocery  clerk.  Sport,  none. 

Education. — Common  schools  from  5  to  11  years.  No  high  school  or  college 
education. 

Memory. — Excellent  for  long  poetic  citations;  not  good  for  proper  names; 
indifferent  for  figures. 

Non-abstainer. — Last  use,  November  1913,  drank  to  excess  7  to  10  days, 
this  leading  him  to  go  to  the  Psychopathic  Hospital.  At  present  abstainer, 
under  hospital  supervision.  Previously  took  perhaps  2  glasses  of  whisky  and 
7  glasses  of  ale  a  day.  Very  little  affects  him  very  quickly.  One  glass  of  ale 
makes  his  head  dull;  feels  the  effect  of  one  glass  of  whisky  for  whole  day. 
When  he  once  begins  drinking,  continues  until  intoxicated. 

First  noticeable  effects:  Head  dull  with  ale;  whisky  makes  him  talkative. 
Requires  3  or  4  glasses  of  ale  to  produce  a  feeling  of  happiness,  but  only  1 
glass  of  whisky.  Is  not  conscious  that  he  is  becoming  intoxicated  until  he  has 
reached  that  state.  Drinking  causes  a  flow  of  ideas;  "could  make  a  speech/' 
as  words  come  easily.  Does  not  make  him  quarrelsome.  Does  not  drink  to 
dull  mental  or  physical  pain.  Drinking  incapacitates  him  for  work;  he  can 
not  reason,  and  makes  blunders.  Produces  a  feeling  of  independence,  but  does 
not  affect  morals.  Has  no  appetite  after  a  day's  drinking.  Ale  increases  the 
flow  of  urine. 

Tea  and  coffee. — Drinks  coffee  only  on  Sunday,  strong.  Tea  freely,  strong; 
6  cups  a  day  with  no  effect. 

Life  insurance. — Examined,  1912;  John  Hancock  Life  Insurance  Company; 
accepted.  Examined,  also,  at  the  Psychopathic  Hospital,  to  which  he  has 
been  admitted  twice  for  delirium  tremens. 

Physical  defects. — Left  eye  has  scar  on  cornea;  vision  impaired;  right  eye, 
ordinary  vision.  Front  teeth  bad,  preventing  clear  utterance  of  words  in 
reaction  experiments. 

SUBJECT  XII. 

Date.— March  31,  1914. 

Family  history. — Both  father  and  mother  mulatto;  date  of  marriage  un- 
known, probably  1849. 

Three  brothers,  54,  52,  and  37  years;  two  sisters,  58  and  46  years. 

Father  drinks  considerable  of  any  kind  of  liquor,  when  his  work  permits; 
makes  him  somewhat  ugly.  Mother  total  abstainer.  Only  one  brother  drinks 
occasionally,  but  not  affected  by  it.  Sisters,  abstainers.  No  habitual  use  of 
drugs  by  any  member  of  the  family  or  nervous  or  mental  disease  in  the  family 
history;  no  knowledge  of  excessive  use  of  alcohol  in  the  family  history. 

Personal  data. — Age,  40  years;  height,  169.1  cm.;  weight,  68.1  kilos.  Occu- 
pation, night  watchman,  railroad  station.  Same  place  for  4  years.  Sleeps 
6  p.  m.  to  12  midnight;  works  midnight  to  10  a.  m.  Has  worked  nights  all  of 
his  life  on  Pullman  cars. 


APPENDIX   II.  281 

Sport. — Used  to  run  a  great  deal,  but  had  pain  in  his  heart  after  running 
and  the  "physician  told  him  that  the  valves  were  clogged." 

Education— Five  years  in  common  schools,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia;  also 
attended  evening  school,  Boston,  one  winter. 

Memory. — Fairly  good. 

Non-abstainer. — At  present  abstainer,  under  hospital  supervision.  Previ- 
ously drank  anything,  in  any  amount,  at  any  time.  Largest  amount  ever 
taken,  10  to  15  glasses  of  whisky.  Made  him  "shaky";  unable  to  sleep  after- 
wards. Last  use  8  months  previous,  except  at  Christmas,  when  he  took  a 
glass  of  wine  and  an  eggnog.  Regular  dose  used  to  be  4  to  5  glasses  of  whisky 
or  several  bottles  of  cheap  wine.  Has  always  been  able  to  get  home,  even 
when  drinking  heavily.  Not  affected  by  2  or  3  glasses  of  whisky.  Insists  that 
stopping  affects  him  more  than  drinking;  makes  his  hand  tremble. 

First  noticeable  effects:  Makes  him  sleepy;  does  not  cause  talkativeness; 
naturally  of  a  happy  temperament  and  the  liquor  does  not  increase  the  feeling 
of  happiness.  No  peculiar  sensations;  no  effect  on  the  flow  of  ideas  or  on  the 
temper.  Never  had  physical  pain,  so  is  unable  to  say  what  would  be  the  effect 
of  drinking  upon  it.  Two  or  three  glasses  of  whisky  does  not  affect  his  work. 
No  effect  upon  morals  or  digestion,  except  that  he  loses  his  appetite  when  he 
stops  drinking.  Whisky  does  not  affect  the  amount  of  urine,  but  wine  does 
to  some  extent. 

Tea  and  coffee. — Three  cups  of  coffee  per  day;  sometimes  takes  tea  instead 
of  coffee. 

Life  insurance. — Was  examined  for  some  company,  the  name  of  which  has 
been  forgotten,  and  was  admitted,  but  did  not  pay  his  premiums. 

SUBJECT  XIV. 

Date.— April  21,  1914. 

Family  history. — Both  father  and  mother  Irish;  married  about  1864.  Seven 
in  family;  subject  next  to  the  youngest;  one  brother. 

Father  drank  whisky,  but  worked  steadily;  effects  unknown.  Not  known 
whether  mother  took  alcohol  or  not.  Brother  drank  heavily  once  a  week ;  made 
him  "soft."  Sisters  practically  temperate.  No  habitual  use  of  drugs  by  any 
member  of  the  family.  Grandfather  had  traumatic  disturbance  as  a  result  of 
a  blow  on  the  head.  No  excessive  use  of  alcohol  in  the  family  history. 

Personal  data.— Age,  39  years;  height,  166.6  cm.;  weight,  67.6  kilos.  Occu- 
pation, bottler,  but  has  not  been  employed  for  6  months. 

Education.— Educated  in  Ireland  to  second  highest  grade  in  national  school; 
scholarship  good. 

Memory. — Average;  not  forgetful. 

Non-abstainer.— At  present  abstainer,  under  hospital  supervision.  Previ- 
ously, drank  three-quarters  of  a  bottle  of  beer  every  hour,  about  8  bottles  a 
day.  Became  intoxicated  only  when  he  drank  whisky  in  addition  to  the  beer. 
Largest  amount  ever  taken,  perhaps  a  pint  of  whisky  at  Christmas.  Last  use, 
6  months  previous,  led  to  admission  to  the  Psychopathic  Hospital.  Occasion- 
ally intoxicated,  after  using  whisky  and  beer.  Never  dizzy,  but  had  heartburn 
and  fermentation. 

First  noticeable  effects:  Drinking  made  him  "full  of  fun,"  talkative,  happy, 
and  argumentative.  Did  not  drink  to  dull  mental  pain.  Did  not  prevent 
him  from  doing  his  work.  No  noticeable  effect  on  the  urine. 

Tea  and  coffee.— Takes  both  tea  and  coffee  now,  of  moderate  strength,  5  cups 
a  day. 

Life  insurance.— Examined  for  life  insurance  in  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance 
Company  and  Knights  of  Columbus;  for  the  latter  about  1894  or  1895. 
Accepted. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  L11W  AIO 

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